三、问答题
1.what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?
Phonetics----it’s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.
Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.
Morphology---It’s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
Syntax-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language.
Semantics---It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.
Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words.
Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society.
Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind.
Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.
2.why do we say language is arbitrary?
Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer.
The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, it’s only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance.
A typical example to illustrate the ‘arbitrariness’ of language is ‘a rose by any other name would smell as sweet’.
3.what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?
Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。
traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on’ high’ written language.
传统语法是规定性的，研究‘高级’书面语。
4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? why
Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.
现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。
5.which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writings?
Speech enjoys for the following reasons:
⑴Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution.
⑵A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing.
⑶speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.
6.how is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s ?
Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. their purpose is to single out the language system for serious study
Two linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
6.the distinction between langue and parole?
⑴langue is abstract, relatively stable ⑵parole is concrete, varies from person to person, from situation to situation.
Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用
Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.
He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.
7.What are the main feature of human language that have been specified by C Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?
Design feature:It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish any animal system of communication.
Arbitrariness:There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds
Productivity :Animals are quite limited in the message they are able to send.
Duality:Language is a system,which consists of two sets of structures,or two levels.
Displacement:Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from immediate situations of the speaker.
Cultural transmission:Human capacity for language has a genetic basis,but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system,This showed that language is culturally transmitted ,not by instinct.Animals are born with the capacity to produce the se of calls peculiar to their species.
Chapter Two Phonology
三、问答题
1.what are the three branches of phonetics? how do they contribute to the study of speech sound?
Articulatory —describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.
Auditory-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.
Acoustic-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.
发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何有所不同。
听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质，得出了重要结论，即语音同一只是理论上的理想。
声学语音学研究语音的物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的传播方式。
2.how are the English consonants classified?
By place of articulation and By manner of articulation
3.how do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who do you think will be more interested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? why?
语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?
Phonetics —description of all speech sounds and their find differences.
Phonology —description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.
A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences in meaning.
4.what’s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?
Phone—a speech sound ,a phonetic unit.
Phoneme---a collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit.
Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.
5.what is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要?
Minimal pair—two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position.
除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合.
Minimal set—a group of sound combinations with the above feature.
一组具有上述特征的语音组合.
By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes.
通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能辨别出它的音位.
6.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ?
Broad transcription—one letter symbol for one sound.
Narrow transcription—diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.
7.explain the sequential rule ,the assimilation rule and the deletion rule.
有序规则Sequential rules
Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. If you are given four cards/k/,/b/,/I/,/i/,you might order such as ,blik,kilb.bilk,killb,and that illbk,ilbk,.are not possible words in English.
同化规则Assimilation rules
The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by’ copying ’a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. /i:/sound is nasalized in words like:began,green,team,scream.
省略规则Deletion rule
It’s a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.
Chapter Three Morphology(只有知识点，没有问答题）
一、定义
1.词素Morpheme
The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language.
2.自由词素Free Morpheme
Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.
3.黏着词素Bound morphemes
Bound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently.
4.词根Root
Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.
5.词缀Affix
The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.
6.曲折词缀inflectional affixes
The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.
7.派生词缀Derivational affixes
The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational affixes.
8.词干Stem
A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added.,a stem can be a bound root ,a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.
9.形态学规则Morphological rules
They are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word.
10.前缀Prefix
Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem ,but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, exceptions are the prefixes ‘be-‘ and ‘en(m)-‘
11.后缀Suffix
Suffixes are added to the end of stems, they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. 3.In using the morphological rules, we must guard against Over-generalization.
二、知识点
Inflectional morphology
1.Morphology
2.Derivational morphology
Free morphemes
Morphemes Root
Bound morphemes Inflectional affixes
Affixes Prefix
Derivational affixes
2.some words maybe said to contain a root morpheme. Suffix
4.Compound features:
⑴orthographically, a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between.
⑵Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element.
⑶semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its component
Chapter Four Syntax
三、问答题
1.Use the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a labeled constituent structure tree diagram for each of the following sentences.
⑴the tower on the hill collapsed in the wind
⑵Mary promised John to see the doctor.
2.What is phrase structure rule?
Special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called phrase structure rule.NP,VP,AP,PP.
3.What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?
Some structure are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as ans or or.
3.What is deep structure and what is surface structure
Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties is called deep structure,
Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations -surface structure.
4.what elements does a phrase contain and what roles does each element play?
Phrase that formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements:head,specifier.
The word around which a phrase is formed is termed head.
The word on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers.
The words on the right side of the heads are complements.
Chapter 5 Semantics
Polysemy一词多义
Homophones同音同义piece&peace;Homographs同形异义lead&;lead Hyponymy 上下关系Antonymy反义关系：oppositeness of meaning:(1)Gradable antonyms:hot -cold;Complementary antonyms:dead-alive;Relational antoyms buy-sell.;componential analysis 成分分析；predication analysis述谓分析
三、问答题
1.how are sense and reference related?
Sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, which is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it’s abstract and de-contextualized.
Reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it is a matter of relationship between the form and reality.
2.in what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features?成分分析和把音位分析为区别性特征有何相似之处？
In the light of componential analysis, the meaning of a word consists of a number of distinctive meaning features, the analysis breaks down the meaning of the word into these features; it is these different features that distinguish word meaning similarly, a phoneme is considered as a collection of distinctive sound features, a phoneme can be broken down into these distinctive sound features and its these sound features that distinguish different sounds.
3.what’s grammaticality? what might take a grammatically meaningful sentence semantically meaningless?
什么是语法性？一个语法上有意义的句子可能由于什么而不是有意义的?
Grammaticality---the grammatical well-formedness of a sentence.
A sentence may be well-formed grammatically, i.e. it conforms to the grammatical rules of the language, but it is not necessarily semantically well-formed, i.e. it may not make sense at all
4.what are the major types of synonyms in English?
Dialectal synonyms;Autumn&fall
Stylistic synonyms:Begin&commence
Synonyms that differ in their emotive or eval meaning:Collaborator&Accomplice
Chapter 6 pragmatics
Locutionary act(言内行为）;The act of uttering words,phrase,clauses.
It is the act of conveying literal meaning by maens of syntax,lexicon and phonology.
Llocutionary act(言外行为）：The act of experssing the speaker’s intention.Its the act performed in saying something.
Perlocutionary:(言后行为）
1.representatives:c阐述类2.directives指令类3.commissives承诺类4.expressives:表达类5.declarations宣告类。
第七章 Language changes
Addition of new words:coinage(新造的字）eg.walkman),clipped words(expo)，blending(smog),acronyms(WTO),back-formation(to butch),functional-shift(to break),borrowing(tragedy)下载本文
