The Application of Cognitive Strategies | |||||
陈喜庄 发布时间: 2009-12-3 15:54:23 | |||||
AbstractVocabulary learning is an important aspect of second language learning. Vocabulary is indispensable to the acquisition and application of a language. It is recognized that the mastery of vocabulary is an essential component of second language and foreign language learning; therefore learners must develop vocabularies in order to become proficient in a second language or foreign language. What’s more, as the study of learning strategies become more and more hot and deeper. In this paper the author discussed vocabulary learning based on the theoretical cognitive strategies. This paper developed in four parts: (1) The importance of vocabulary in second language learning; The significance of L2 Vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) (2) Cognitive strategies.(3) Definition of Vocabulary learning strategies in this paper and the application of cognitive strategies to vocabulary learning (4) Conclusion and suggestion Key word:vocabulary learning; vocabulary learning strategies; cognitive strategies 1.1Definitions of learning strategies Before we come to analysis the vocabulary strategies we should first understand what is learning strategies. Learning strategies refer to methods that students use to learn. This ranges from techniques for improved memory to better studying of test-taking strategies. The definition of learning strategies will directly affect the classification of language learning strategies. Many language learning strategies classification systems have been divided. The mid-1970s was generally believed to be the starting point of the research on learner strategies when Rubin first, shortly after, Stern presented their studies on the learning strategies of “good” or “successful” L2 learners. Rubin and Stern focused on good learners’ processes in learning another language. And later Bialystock (1981), believes that it should be defined in terms of the conception of learning. Her definition is that language learning strategies are “optional means for exploiting available information to improve competence in a second language.” Based on psychological functions, O’Malley and Chamot define it as the special thought or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information. Oxford defines learning strategies as “specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations.” Cohen who based on the intent of strategy use refers language learning strategies to the steps or actions consciously selected by learners to improve their learning of a language. It generally deals with the input and how we receive message in ways of processing, storing and retrieving. 1.2 Classifications of leaning strategies From the above definitions we can see the diverse opinions about language learning strategies. This will directly affect the classification of language learning strategies. Many language learning strategies classifications systems have been divided. Based on the study of successful language learners, Rubin classifies language learning strategies into three categories: learning strategies, communication strategies, and social strategies. Bialystock’s classification is a linguistically based system dealing with formal practice, functional practice, monitoring and inferencing. Based on psychological functions, O’Malley and Chamot divide language learning strategies into three categories: metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies, and social-affective strategies. Oxford divides language learning strategies into two main classes, direct and indirect, which are further subdivided into 6 groups: metacongnitve, affective strategies, social strategies, cognitive strategies, memory strategies and compensation strategies. According to Stern, there are five main language learning strategies. They are: management and planning strategies, cognitive strategies, communicative-experiential strategies, interpersonal strategies and affective strategies. Cohen classifies language learning strategies into strategies in using the language, which is related to separate language skills. In what follows, the typologies of language learning strategies will be handled in detail, with the focus on some influential classifications. 1.3The importance of vocabulary in second language learning Vocabulary learning is an important aspect of second language learning. Vocabulary is indispensable to the acquisition and application of a language. However, it was until 1970s that research into vocabulary learning began to receive attention and gain development in applied linguistics. Just as Wilkins states, that “while without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed.” McCarthy also states: It is experience of most language teachers that the single, biggest component of and language course is vocabulary. No matter how well the student learns grammar, no matter how successfully be sounds of L2 are mastered, without words to express a wide range of meanings, communication in an L2 just cannot happen in any meaningful way. Laufer also tells us “No text comprehension is possible, either in one’s native language or in a foreign language, without understanding the text’s vocabulary”. Krashen and Terrell also clearly indicate that “Vocabulary is of prime concern in L2 settings because it plays a dominant role in classroom success.” In sum, vocabulary plays a vital part in all aspects of language learning including listening, speaking, reading, writing and translation. It is recognized that the mastery of vocabulary is an essential component of second language and foreign language learning; therefore learners must develop vocabularies in order to become proficient in a second language or foreign language. 1.4The significance of L2 Vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) Nation divides English vocabulary into the three groups: high frequency word, low frequency words, and specialized vocabulary. High-frequency words are those that occur often in the material we read or listen to. It consists mainly of short words which cannot be broken into meaningful parts. Although low-frequency vocabulary is mage from a much smaller number of word parts, they are very large groups of words which cover a very small proportion of any text, with each word occurring very infrequently. Specialized vocabulary may occur several times within a certain topic or subject area, but they are unlikely to occur in texts outside that subject area. Because of the infrequency of their occurrence in texts, low-frequency words become hard to learn for language learners, and therefore even harder for second language learners. In this case, it is better to use strategies to deal with these words. Moreover, Willemand and Melvin found that students who have been studying a foreign language, even if only for a month or so, have most likely developed conscious or unconscious learning strategies to master the material also assumed that learners either consciously or subconsciously adopt some vocabulary learning strategies. Graces suggested that, because students actually do most of their learning of new words independently, it makes sense to encourage them to adopt personal plans to expand their vocabulary overtime (Lawson and Hogben) The above statements revealed that it is necessary for L2 learners to adopt VLS in the process of vocabulary acquisition. I will analysis the VLS based on cognitive strategies. 2. Cognitive strategies. O’Malley and Chamot divide language learning strategies into three categories: metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies, and social-affective strategies. In this paper I focus on cognitive strategies because it was the most frequently used among the three broad categories of vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) 2.1 The definition of cognitive strategies: It turns out difficult to define cognitive strategies, partly because terms such as skills, strategies, and processes are used differently by different people. O’Malley and Chamot pointed out cognitive strategies are more limited to specific learning tasks and they involve more direct manipulation of the learning materials itself. 2.2 The classification of cognitive strategies Cognitive strategies can be divided into four subcategories: 1 Memorization; 2. Guessing 3 dictionary use; 4 note taking 1 Memorization strategies can be further divided into 5 subcategies (1) Repetition: imitating a language model, including overt practice and silent rehearsal. (2) Imagery: relating new information to visual concepts in memory via familiar, easily retrievable visualizations, phrases, of locations. (3) Word formation (4) Grouping: reordering or reclassifying and perhaps labeling the material to be learned based on common attributes. (5) Contextualization: Placing a word or phrase in a meaningful language sequence. 2. Guessing 3 dictionary use 4 note taking writing down the main idea, important points, outline, or summary of information presented orally or in writing. 3.1 Definition and classification of Vocabulary learning strategies in this paper 3.1.1 Definition of Vocabulary learning strategies Based on the learning strategies, vocabulary learning strategies, vocabulary learning strategies refer to both general approaches and specific action or techniques used by a learner to make the vocabulary learning become easier, faster and better. Following we will discussed the application of cognitive strategies to vocabulary learning: 1 Memorization (Imagery) (Grouping) (repetition); 2. Guessing 3 dictionary use; 4 note taking 3.1.2 The classification of cognitive strategies to vocabulary learning ------studied by some famous linguistics (1) Memorization ------Imagery Imagery is one of the strategies learners use in their vocabulary learning process. As Norbert Schmitt indicate, “imagery has been shown to be more effective than mere repletion for reading passage an sentences , suggesting it could be well effective for vocabulary too. New words can also be associated with a particularly vivid personal experience of the underlying concept, for example, a learner mentally connecting the word snow to a memory of playing in the snow with a child.” (Norbert Schmitt) One of the most explored mnemonic strategies based on imagery for learning foreign language is the keyword method, which devised by Atkinson and his colleague. Memorization -------Grouping Grouping is an important way to aid recall, and people seem to organize words into groups naturally without prompting. In some free-recall studies, L1 subjects were given lists of words to study and then recall in any order. Typically, words belonging to each meaning category are recalled together, for example, all animals first, before moving on to another category like names, If the words are organized in some way before memorization, recalled ability is improved. The above L1 studies show grouping works for native-speakers, and there is no reason to believe it does not do the same for L2 learners. However, Chamot points out that the grouping strategies more than beginners did. Memorization -------Repetition, Memory plays a very important part in language learning, especially vocabulary learning. O’Malley and Chamot put it : strategies that more actively engage the person’s mental processed should be more effective in supporting learning” so do vocabulary learning strategies: vocabulary learning strategies that more actively engage the learners’ mental process should be more effective in supporting vocabulary learning in that they can improve vocabulary input, storage and retrieval. Repetition strategies are the most frequently used memorization strategies. There are three main way of repetition: oral repetition, visual repetition, combined repetition. Among them Lawson and Hogben’s study shows oral repetition ranks the highest repletion strategies. It play big part important role among repletion strategies as well as memorization strategies. Visual repetition ranks next to it. The last kinds of repletion is the combined repetition which involves the above two kinds. (2) Dictionary use Dictionary use is an essential strategy of vocabulary acquisition. Some study indicated the use of dictionary has a positive effect on incidental vocabulary learning. Bishop conducted two researches with students from an Open University. The results revealed that dictionaries tend to be used mostly for checking and for looking up meanings. And he pointed out that there is a need for more specific training of dictionary use to help students make good use of their dictionaries from the largely passive purpose of verification to the more productive purpose of a resource for increasing vocabulary learning. (3) Guessing Krashen claims that vocabulary is best acquired incidentally by guessing meanings of the unknown words from context through the act of reading. He proposed the Input Hypothesis, which assumes that learners acquire language by understanding message. He believes that the Input Hypothesis is more efficient than other hypothesis. However, some researchers such as Knight, Raptis, have challenged this theory in term of wrong guesses, demand for much time, doubtful validity to various ages, levels and language groups. Other researchers have noted that even the success in correct guess does not necessarily lead to acquisition of the new word. (Nation and Coady) (4) Note taking Note taking consist of parts: meaning-oriented vocabulary notes or usage-oriented vocabulary notes. Meaning-oriented note taking strategies involve taking down only simple information about word while usage-oriented note-taking strategies involve taking down detailed information about lexical items. 3.1.3 Descriptive statistics of cognitive strategies Strategies | min | max | means | Std.deviation | |
Guessing | 1.33 | 5.00 | 3.31 | 0.68 | |
Note taking | 1.00 | 5.00 | 2.82 | 1.04 | |
Dictionary use | 1.90 | 4.73 | 3.68 | 0.48 | |
Memory strategies | 1.48 | 4.15 | 2.77 | 0.49 |
4. Conclusion and suggestion
Vocabulary learning strategies play an important role in English vocabulary learning. And there are many learning strategies can be applied to the vocabulary learning. Cognitive strategy is the most frequently used among the three broad categories of VLS. Although vocabulary learning is still influenced by many other factors, such metecognitive strategies or social strategies, there is no doubt that, in general, the students who are mature or good at using these strategies will help them in the vocabulary learning. The mastery of these strategies will help students to better in vocabulary learning. Therefore, In view of the importance of vocabulary in FL learning and the effectiveness of some strategies in the mastery of vocabulary, we strongly suggested language teacher to embed VLS training in our normal English class, or to elaborate VLS by giving special lectures, so that we could be acquainted with more VLS. With the more options to choose from, we may finally find out the strategies that are more suitable for us, and more effective to assist their vocabulary acquisition. As to the students is recommended to apply the learning strategies on to vocabulary learning according to their own specific learning conditions, making language learning more efficiency. English learners should not simply copy the vocabulary learning strategies employed by the other learners; they can discover the strategies of their own. There is not saying that which strategy is good or which is bad. As long as the strategy is effective to the user himself, it will be a good one.
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