一.Argument的写作特点
给出一篇短文，30分钟内指出主要的逻辑错误并提出建议
二.Argument整体结构
第一段： 开头段。主要是归纳论点，说明论点有问题，存在逻辑漏洞，准备发起进攻。
第二段和第三段甚至第四段：分类别去攻击各个逻辑错误。
第五段： 结尾段。作者的结论似乎是合理的，但是通过论证，不是这样的。因此作者在做出决定之前，应该还要考虑其他情况。
三.如何写开头段？
例.重复结论+扼要重述论据+转折（总论）
In this memo the vice president of Nature's Way CNW), a chain of stores selling health food and health-related products, recommends opening a store in Plamesville. To support this recommendation the vice president cites the following facts about Plainesville: (1) sales of exercise shoes and clothing are at all-time highs; (2) the local health club is more popular than ever; and (3) the city's schoolchildren are required to participate in a fitness program. Close scrutiny of each of these facts, however, reveals that none of them lend credible support to the recommendation.
四.开头段的小宝式写法（C－E－F）
Merely based on unfounded assumption and dubious (suspicious) evidence, the statement draws a conclusion that_____. To substantiate (support) the conclusion, the arguer points out evidence that_____. In addition, he indicates that_____. Furthermore, he cites the result of a recent survey in support of this recommendation. At first glance, the author’s argument appears to be somewhat convincing, but further reflection reveals that it omits some substantial concerns that should be addressed to substantiate the argument. In my point of view, this argument suffers from N logical flaws.
五.如何写正文段
六.如何写结尾段
七.结尾段的具体写法
To sum up, this arguer fails to substantiate its claim that_____, because the evidences cited in the analysis does not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains. To make the argument more convincing, the arguer would have to provide more information with regard to_____. Additionally, he would have to demonstrate that_____. Therefore, if the argument had included the given factors discussed above, it would have been more thorough and logically acceptable.
八.各个逻辑错误的攻击方法和语言
1.Survey/Study：调查类逻辑错误
攻击：样本的质量和数量，采样过程是否科学合理
(1)Procedure 过程
A. Selective sample 选择性或片面性样本
攻击点：样本选择不随机，不具有代表性
攻击技巧：调查对象前一些列限定性定于或修饰词
3题
B. Quantity of the sample 数量多是错，数量少是错，没说数量更是错
攻击点：样本数量少，即使有典型性也不能说明问题
攻击语言
Unless the surveyors sampled a sufficient number of and did so randomly across the entire spectrum（范围）, the survey results are not reliable to gauge（评估）_____ generally. The number of respondents/samples, in itself , does not ensure representativeness. For example, if the sample included only , then the results would no doubt suggest . Or if _____, (1200) would account for only a little percentage, which would renders the result of the survey meaningless.
180题
(2)Result of the survey
A. Do the statistics make any meaningfullness? 数据是否有意义，对论证和结论无意义
194题，14题
B. Are the statistics misleadingly vague?数据是否含糊
标志词：all many a number of most 绝对化数量（5000）
Percentage proportion 相对比值
①攻击“无相对比值”The argument tells us that “many” (a number of ) _____. However, the speaker fails to indicate the percentage of _____, so this evidence is far too vague to be meaningful.
②攻击“无绝对数值”
The author fails to provide information regarding the absolute number of ____.
102题
C. Respondents 回应者错误
The respondents must be statistically significant in number and representative of the overall_____.
115题
(3)Who conducted the survey?调查者中立
The surveyor should be nonaligned / cross-bencher.中立的
179题
(4)When was the survey conducted? 调查时间
在时间轴上，做调查的时间和通过调查得出结论的时间在时间上足够的近
36题
A threshold problem is that the editorial neglects to indicate how recently he survey was actually conducted. When samples are used to make general claims about a particular group, the samples should be close enough in time to the generalization. All we know in this editorial is that the survey was recently published. The less recent the survey itself, the less reliable the results to indicate current interest levels.
2.Sufficient Evidence and Necessary Condition 充分必要条件类错误
(1)Sufficient Evidence 充分条件
标志词：once
攻击点：A不充分导致B，B的发生还依赖他因（CDE……………..）
170题
a.The argument assumes too hastily that ____will necessarily result in the behavior that the argument predicts. Perhaps,_____. Moreover,____.
b.The fact that A is not sufficient for the prediction that B .
(2)Necessary Condition 必要条件
作者在原文中一般会指出：A的发生是唯一导致B发生的必要条件
攻击时要指出：没有A的发生，如果有CDE…任何一个到两个因素的发生也可以导致B的发升
标志词：only extreme……
195题
The editor’s recommendation depends on the assumption that no factors other than A caused B . However, common sense informs me that this assumption is a poor one. A myriad of other factors, including ___or ____, might just as likely be the cause of B . To be specific,_____. Without ruling out these and other possible causes, the editor cannot justifiably conclude that only by ____ can____.
3.Cause and Effect Fallacies 因果关系类错误
(1) Non sequitur 无因果类错误
作者一般指出A发生导致B发生，即A是B的原因，B是A的结果。我们要破坏这层因果关系，指出B这一结果的发生是由于其他原因导致的。
212题
The arguer fails to establish the causal relationship between the fact that ____and the claim that____. This argument is unacceptable unless there is compelling evidence to support the connection between these two events. Perhaps, for example, ____results from_____.
(2)Post hoc, ergo proper hoc (after this, therefore because of this)时序因果关系错误
错误机理：作者一般会指出几年前发生的事情A，几年后发生的事情B，作者在本来只是存在时序性关系的事件中强行建立了因果关系
攻击机理：破除这层逻辑关系，只保留时序关系
标志词：after this ,since then ,because of this,therefore………..
Based on the fact that ____ occurred after _____, the editor infers that ____should be responsible for _____. However, the sequence of these events, in itself, does not suffice to prove that earlier development caused the later one. I might have resulted from some other events instead: ____________----to just a few possibilities. Without ruling out scenarios such as these, the editor cannot establish a cause-and-effect relationship between______ and _______ upon which editor’s the recommendation depends.
(3)Concurrence 同时因果错误
错误机理：在时间轴上的某一个段内或某个时刻上，AB两个事件同时发生，但作者在两事件中强行加入了逻辑联系或因果联系
攻击机理：破除这层逻辑关系
标志词：also,meanwhile,with,parallel……….
2题
The argument observes a correlation between A and B , then concludes that the former is the cause of the latter. However, the argument fails to rule out other possible explanations for A or B . For example, _____. Any of these factors might lead to B . Without ruling out all other factors it is unfair to conclude that A is responsible for B.
(4)Confuse the cause and effect 混淆因果错误
错误机理：作者说A的发生导致B的发生
攻击机理：首先攻击二者之间不存在因果关系；进而让步，即使真的存在因果关系，但似乎我们通过常理可以看出，更多的可能性是由于B的发生导致A的发生。
25题
It is possible that the mayor has confused cause with effect respecting the recent developments in Ocean View. Perhaps A was a response to B. Since the mayor has failed to account for this possibility, the claim that _____ is completely unwarranted.
4.Changing Scope Fallacies 范围变化类错误
(1)Different concepts 偷换概念
167题
A threshold problem involves the definition of A . The arguer fails to define this critical term. If A is defined as B , then how C , is irrelevant to whether____. In short, without a clear definition of A , it is impossible to assess the strength of the argument.
(2)What is true for a member is also true for the group 由个体推整体
8题
The argument resets on the assumption that 个体案例 typify nationwide 整体情况. If this is not the case, then it is entirely possible that 在另一个地方，上述个案的结果不会发生相同的情况 Thus, lacking more marketing information about ____ nationwide, it is difficult to assess the merit of the memo’s recommendation.
(3)Assuming that characteristics of a group apply to each group member 由整体推个体
标志词：throughout,nationwide,statewide,all over.overall…………
One problem with the argument is that it assumes that the nationwide (characteristics of a group apply to every member of that group) statistics about _____ applies equally to 个体成员， Yet this might not be the case, for a variety of possible reasons. Perhaps ______; or perhaps ______ . Without ruling out such possibilities, the author cannot justifiably conclude that _____.
(4)Average平均类错误
5.Incomplete Thought 考虑问题不全面
(1)Failing to weigh the advantage and disadvantage thoroughly
错误机理：单一的考虑问题
206题
In addition, the author fails to consider the possible negative（positive） impacts brought about by .
(2)Profit
逻辑错误机理：作者通过做一个什么事情之后，势必将来会产生一个利润（profit）
利润=收入-成本
标志词：profit profitable
170题
The author’ conclusion that _____ is unwarranted. Profit is factor of not only revenue, but also costs. It’s entirely possible that the costs of_________ , or other costs associated with ________, will offset, even outweigh the revenue. Besides, a myriad of other possible occurrence, such as unfavorable economic conditions, might prevent ______ from being as profitable in the foreseeable futures as the argument predicts.
6.All things remain unchanged over time 外推类错误
(1)Past conditions remain unchanged in the present and future
过去的情况不能退的现在和未来的情况
攻击机理：时间轴上曾经一个好的趋势，但现在未必依然很好，将来也未必可以保证，因为很多背景信息会发生剧烈的变化，人们无法预见的变化
标志词：具体时间：seven years ago,ten years ago,last year
Trend,tendency…………………
The author claims that ______, because _____ . The author assumes without justification that the background conditions have remained the same at different time. The assumption is unwarranted because things rarely remain the same over extended periods of time. There are likely all kinds of difference between A and B . For example, A_______; however, B______. Any of these scenarios, if true, would serve to undermine the claim that ______
(2)Present Conditions will remain unchanged into the future
现在的情况也不能推得未来的情况
240题
7.Vague evidence 论据含糊
它的出现标志着让步式攻击在false analogy错误中的出现
（1）promise 承诺类错误
225题
（2）依存型False analogy（类比）
错误机理：作者说A做了某件事，那么B城市或地区也应该效仿之。
但作者没有提到该事件给A带来的益处
43题
8.Analogy and comparison横比和纵比
(1)False analogy 错误类比
攻击方法：首先指出两个国家，地区，人，行业之间的错误类比，然后列举两者之间的种种差异，最后在未能排除这些可能的差异情况下，不能导出结论
标志性词汇：follow,neighboring,neighbourhood,，两个城市或行业的名字，引言句中出现的名字，正文未显现
204题226题
The arguer’s recommendation relies on what might be a poor analogy between A and B. The analogy falsely depends on the assumption that ______ in both A and B are similar. However, it is entirely possible that A与B存在很大的不同. In short, without accounting for important possible differences between A and B, the arguer cannot reasonably prove the proposed method will help A_____ .
To strengthen the argument,instead of relying on a dubious analogy between A and B,the arguer should supply evidence,perhaps by way of a urvey or a marketing program at A,to prove that (the proposed method will indded help A)/ A will indeed reap the benefits from the mothod.
(2)Incomplete or selective comparison 不完整或选择性比较
(3)Comparison and Variation
错误类比：空间上的错误类比-横比
外推类错误：时间上的错误类比-纵比
9.False dilemma 非此即彼类错误
标志词：either or
攻击机理：作者往往会对一个现象列出两个理由，并否定其中一个理由，从而未加证明的说明是第二个理由。
Even assuming A is not the reason for the B , the author falsely assumes that the B must be attributable to C. This “either-or ” argument is fallacious in that it ignores other possible causes of the B . For example, perhaps 其他可能原因, or perhaps 其他可能原因
10.Unwarranted Assumption 无理假设
调查类错误，因果类错误，错误类比，外推类错误
The author falsely depends on gratuitous assumption that ______. However, no evidence is stated in the argument to support this assumption. For example, it is most likely that ______. Therefore, the argument is unwarranted without ruling out such possibility.
11. Hasty generalization急于概括类错误
168题，172题
In addition, the arguer commits a fallacy of hasty generalization. Even if A , it does not follow that B . It is highly possible that other factors may have contributed to B. For instance, __________ . Besides, the arguer does not provide any solid information concerning B. Without ruling out these and other possible factors that give rise to B, the author cannot confidently conclude that ______.
写作必背单词和短语
1.counterproductive adj.产生相反效果（结果）的
e.g. It is counterproductive to be too tough: it just makes the staff resentful.
2.seminal adj.萌芽的，潜在的；开创性的；有重大影响的
e.g. in the seminal state （在萌芽状态）|| seminal thoughts || seminal principle（基本原则）
3.forgo v.放弃
e.g.The choice to forgo his security is always available, although it might carry unpleasant consequence.
4.intuition n.直觉
e.g.I will trust my strong intuition that free will is an essential part of our being as humans.
5.satisfy v.证明是正当的，公证的；为…寻找正当理由
e.g. In the final analysis, government cannot philosophically satisfy assisting large cities for the purpose of either promoting or preserving the nation's cultural traditions; nor is government assistance necessary toward these ends.
6.resort to … 诉诸…
e.g.there is no necessity to resort to violent actions such as demonstration, riot or rebel.
7.hinge on … 以…为转移，靠…转动
e.g. The claim that society’s destiny hinges on how children are socialized, while appealing in some respects, is an over-statement at best.
8.lend some credence to … 提供支持
e.g. Recent advances in molecular biology and genetics lend some credence to this position, by suggesting that these determining physical forces include our own individual genetic makeup.
9.dimension n.大小；体积；程度；范围
e.g. I did not realize the dimensions of the problem.
10.amount to … 相当于；等于
e.g. What you say amounts to a direct accusation.
11.inspire v.激励或鼓舞
e.g. To begin with, learning about key historical figures inspires us to achieve great things ourselves --- far more so than learning about the conditions of groups of people.
12.provide necessary impetus for … 给与…动力
e.g. It is almost always a key individual who provide the necessary imputes for what otherwise might be a group effort, as discussed below.
13.paradigm n.样式；典范；范例
e.g. educational paradigms
14.obscure v.使阴暗；使朦胧
e.g. Generally speaking, then, undue attention to the efforts and contributions of various groups tends to obscure the cause and effect relationship with which the study of history is chiefly concerned.
15.nascent adj.初生的
e.g.in a nascent condition/stage/state || a nascent industry/ literature/art
16.irrespective of whether … 无论如何
e.g. While we must invest in research irrespective of whether the results might be controversial.
17.draw a distinction between … 区分…
e.g.One useful approach is to draw a distinction between personal morality and public morality.
18.catalyst n.催化剂；刺激因素
e.g. circumstance often serves as a catalyst for heroism.
19.proviso n.性条款；（附带）条件
e.g. Aside from the two forgoing provisos, however, I fundamentally disagree with the speaker’s claim.
20.proceeding n.行动, 进行,会议录, 学报
e.g. legal proceeding || governmental proceedings
21.thwart v.反对；妨碍；挫败
e.g. the government’s strategies for thwarting specific plans of an international terrorist or a drug trafficker.
22.unprecedented adj.空前的，史无前例的
e.g.the society is changing at a speed which is quite unprecedented.
23.inexorable adj. 不可阻挡的；坚持不懈的；无情的
e.g.Facts are inexorable || the inexorable march of science
24.take precedence over … 居先于…;优先于…
e.g. This interest might take precedence over the historic value of an old structure that stands in the way of a parking structure.
25.serve as a substitute for …取代…
be superceded by 代替；取代
e.g. Pragmatic behavior guarantees survival, whereas idealistic views tend to be superceded by simpler, more immediate options.
26.emerge from … 源自于：（in every age and culture some worthwhile art and literature emerges from the mediocrity.）
27.名人
notable figures
celebrity
elite
personality （television personalities）
28.普遍；普及
prevailing adj.普遍的；流行的；占优势的 （the prevailing view in Western corporate culture || prevailing principle）
29.灌输；教育
instill v. （Courtesy must be instilled in childhood || Morality may be instilled into their minds）
inculcate v. （inculcate the young with a sense of duty.）
impart v. （A good teacher imparts wisdom to his pupils.）
foster v.养育, 抚育, 培养, 鼓励（Frequent cultural exchange will certainly help foster friendly relations between our two universities. || detect and foster artistic talent. || to foster an interest in music）
nurture v.养育, 给与营养物, 教养 （While the speaker might overlook the benefits of nurturing certain emotions and feels, on balance I agree that …）
30.若干重；若干刃
a double-edged sword 双刃剑
e.g. This type of advertisement can be a doubt-edged sword, when the product does not make the person “be like” the person in the advertisement, there can be disappointment and disillusionment with the product.
a two-edged weapon 双重武器
e.g. As is so often pointed out, knowledge is a two-edged weapon which can be used equally for good or evil.
twofold/threefold/manifold adj.双重/三重/多种
e.g. We have to ask ourselves very seriously what will happen is this twofold use of knowledge, with its ever-increasing power, continues.
e.g. The City Council has a manifold plan to beautify the city.
31.消除；减轻
eliminate v. 排除，消除 （eliminate the false and retain the true || eliminate the possibility of= preclude the possibility of）
diminish v. 使减小，使变少 （diminish one’s reputation || diminish the cost of production）
undermine v.破坏，削弱 （formal study of the present culture at the expanse of studying past cultures can undermine the function of higher education, and ultimately provide a disservice to students and to society.）
32.恶化；加剧
exacerbate v. 恶化, 增剧, 激怒, 使加剧, 使烦恼
e.g. The problems would only be exacerbated were these decisions left exclusively to federal regulators.
33.过度；过分
exorbitant adj.过度的；过高的 （exorbitant rents || exorbitantly expensive || exorbitant amount of money）
undue adj.过度的；过分的 （apply undue pressure to make s.b. change his mind）
34.导致、造成
pose 引起某事物，造成，提出
e.g. Winter poses particular difficulties for the elderly.
render v.致使，造成
e.g. Your action has rendered our contract invalid.
breed v.导致；造成
e.g. The speaker unfairly suggests that large cities serve as the primary breeding ground and sanctuaries for a nation’s cultural traditions..
burgeon v.迅速发展；发芽 （burgeoning cities || burgeoning Internet commerce）
outgrowth n.长出, 派出, 结果, 副产物
e.g. A third uniquely contemporary problem is an outgrowth of the inexorable advancement of scientific knowledge.
35.探求、努力：
seek to …探求，寻求
e.g. One compelling argument in favor of a global university has to do with the fact that its faculty and students would bring diverse cultural and educational perspectives to the problems they seek to solve.
strive to …努力
e.g. students should strive to excel in the specific requirements of their major course of study
probe v./n.探求，探查
e.g. probe a matter to the bottom 寻根究底
36.资助、赞助：
subsidize v.资助, 津贴 （Subsidizing cultural traditions is not a proper role of government.）
patron n.资助人；赞助人 （cultural patron）
on the patronage of …
e.g. culture has always depended primarily on the patronage of private individuals and businesses.
under the auspices of …
e.g. During this period, significant scientific advances occurred under the auspices of the government.
37.增强、提高
escalate v.增强,提高,升级 （the escalating cost of addressing these problems）
enhance/promote/augment/elevate v. (elevate notion about …）下载本文
