1. What is the scope of lexicology? How is lexicology related to lexicography and etymology?

2. What are diachronic approach历时性研究and synchronic approach共识性研究in lexicological study?

lexicology, a branch of linguistics, deals with the nature, history, use , and meaning of words and the relationships between elements of words. Lexicology mainly covers the origin, development, structure, meaning, and application of words.

Linguists usually define a word as the smallest unit of a language

1. Lexicology includes phonetics语音学phonology音韵学semantics 语义学etymology词源学lexicography词典学morphology形态学Etymology, which can be regarded as a subfield of lexicology, mainly focuses on the study of the origin and history of words. Lexicography, another related branch to lexicology, is mainly concerned with inclusion of words and the science of compiling dictionaries. Lexicography is about the application of lexicology--the science of dictionaries.

Translation;

coal abounds in this province.

Crystal water wells out of the spring.

2. Two major approaches are employed in lexicological studies;diachronic approach and synchronic approach. They are also two principal approaches to the study of language. all languages exist in a state of constant change and development. In language studies, linguists may investigate the history and stages of language change(diachronic) in a course of time. It is historical lexicology. At the same time, they can study the language use, features and variation within a certain stage of its development(synchronic). Then it is descriptive lexicology.

3. Chapter 2

1, what are the major foreign influences upon the development of the English vocabulary? Are there any other sources of influence that are not discussed in this chapter? Could you find some and add with examples?

2, what factors do you think might influence the development of the English language? In your opinion, what will be English language be like in 50 years?

The English vocabulary sprang from three major root sources; Germanic, Latin, and Greek.

① Germanic tribes; anglo-Saxons, form AD450 to 1150; old English period, they contributed about 50. 000 very basic words in today’s English.

②Latin; Roman Occupation, 55BC-AD410. The status of Englandwas re-enhanced as the Latin-speaking missionaries brought Christianity to England.

Greek; Roman conquerors turned to learn Greek, and the English nobles began to learn Latin.

French; in 1066, the Norman French conquered Britain and brought the French style of life to England.

Italy; the European Renaissance, which originated from Italy in the late 14th century and began in large scale in Western Europe throughout the 15th century, signified a new epoch of scientific revolution, religious reforms, artistic transformations, and literary revival.as a result of this cultural movement, quite a number of Italian words become a permanent part of the English vocabulary.

In the 17th century, British conquered the place we call United State, mixed English with their language.

In conclusion, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, Jute, Viking, Norman.

Chapter3

1. What is morpheme? What are the major types of morphemes? What is allomorph词素变体?

A morpheme词素is the smallest part of a word that has grammatical function or meaning. For example, walks, walked, and walking can be analyzed into the morphemes(walk). None of these morphemes can be further divided into meaningful units.Morpheme;

▪free morpheme自由词素it does not have to be attached to another morpheme.

▪bound morpheme粘着词素they must be attached to some other unit(s).

▪inflectional morpheme\\屈折词素such as -s, -ed, -ing，the addition of inflectional morphemes merely changes word form. Such as

▪derivational morpheme派生词素.re-, un-, -ness, -ful . The addition of derivational morphemes creates new words. Such as possible→impossible

When a morpheme has variant forms, these variant forms are called allomorphs. Allomorphs are different realizations of the same morpheme. Such as tooth→teeth,sheep→sheep(different pronunciation.)

Chapter4

The formation of English Words;

▪ derivation派生法; is the process by which new words are formed form existing words or roots by adding affixes词缀( prefix, suffix).

Such as; self+less→selfless,self+less+ly→selflessly, un+self+ish→unselfish.▪compounding复合法；is a direct process of word formation. A compound word is usually formed of two or more independent words that can be used alone as individual words.

Eg; database, weblog, webpage, customer service, data retrieval, mass-destruction

▪conversion转类法；is a process in which the part of speech of a word changes while its form is maintained. Conversion is also defined as” zero derivation,” which means that a word can play a new role without deriving anything or making any changes.

Such as; water n, v. bottle→to bottle, closet, fool, knife, name, pocket, ship, can, e-mail, heat, microwave, nurse, shape, tutor. n→v

▪blending拼缀法；is a word formation process in which parts of words are put together to get a new word. Such as; smoke+ fog→smog,spread+crawl爬行→sprawl伸开四肢坐或卧, camcorder→camera+recorder,blog→web+log,brunch→breakfast+lunch, comcast→communication+broadcast, guestimate→guest+estimate, intercom →internal+ communication, laundromat→laundry+automat, medicaid→medical+care+aid, medicare→medical + care,newscast→news+ broadcast, nightscape→night + landscape, paratroops→ parachute+ troops伞兵,

▪back formation逆构法；is a process of creating a new word out of an existing word which is mistakenly assumed to be in derivative; a supposed suffix of a longer word is removed. Such as; babysit from babysitting, nominate推荐from nomination提名.

▪clipping截短法；is another word formation process from which a new word is formed by dropping one or more syllables from a polysyllable word and the remaining will mean essentially the same thing as the original word.. Such as; fax from facsimile, and phone from telephone, ad→advertisement,cable→cablegram,dorm→dormitory, gas→gasoline,gym→gymnastics, kilo→kilogram,memo→memorandum,

▪acronyms缩略法；

Acronymy and Initialism首字母缩略法；are word formation practices in which the first letters of the individual words of a phrase are put together to form a new word. Such as; DOB for date of birth.

▪ from proper noun to common noun从专有名词到普通名词Chapter7

1. How do your understand sense relations? What are the major sense relations discussed in this chapter?

2. What is polysemy? What is homonymy? How are they related? How are they different?

The meaning of a word in usually related in important ways to the meanings of other words. The relations in meaning are known collectively as sense relations. The major kinds of sense relations include; synonymy同义关系antonymy反义关系hyponymy上下义关系（such as flower and rose）polysemy一词多义homonymy同形或同音异义关系（bank bear）

Polysemy; refers to the capacity of a word to have multiple meanings.

A polyseme is a word or a phrase with different but related meanings. There are two kinds of polysemy; regular/systematic polysemy and irregular/nonsystematic polysemy. Regular polysemy refers to the situation where different interpretations of one word have parallel sets of meanings among one another. For example, bottle can refer both to a container( of liquids)-as in this bottle is full of water-and to a quantity( of liquids)-as in i would like to buy a bottle of wine. Irregular polysemy is different. For example, glass can refer to a certain material, or to a certain kind of container, or to a certain optical aid which is often made of this material. Although these three meanings of the word are, to some extent, related to each other, therelations among them are not systematic, since we cannot give rules that would account for these three meanings of glass.

Homonymy is , in the strict sense in linguistics, a sense relation in which words share the same spelling and/or the same pronunciation but have different meanings. One example of homonym is left( opposite of right) and left( past tense of leave). This is an example of perfect homonyms-they are the same in spelling as well as pronunciation, but different n meaning. Besides true homonyms, there are two other types; words that are same in spelling, but not in pronunciation, are called homographs; words that are the same in pronunciation, but different in spelling, are called homophones. Bear;忍受；生育(一词多义)，bear 忍受；熊（同形异义）Chapter8

▪Metaphor隐喻；a metaphor is an implied analogy that suggestively identified one thing with another.

Eg; the city is a jungle, where the strong survive and the weak perish. The jail is a zoo, where many” animals” are caged.

Life is the morning dew, which vapors away in a mere glimpse.

The world is a stage.

▪Personification拟人化; is a figurative technique by which non-living objects such as things and ideas are endowed with the traits, feelings, actions, characteristics, and even languages of human beings.The yellow fog that rubs its back upon the window-panes,

The yellow smoke that rubs its muzzle on the window-panes,

Licked its tongue into the corners of the evening,

Lingered upon the pools that stand in drains,

Let fall upon its back the soot that falls from chimneys,

slipped by the terrace, made a sudden leap,

And seeing that it was a soft October night,

Curled once about the house, and fell asleep.

Hyperbole夸张; or exaggeration, is a figurative technique used to emphasize a point. Writers or speakers use this technique to be impressive or to emphasize a point.

The fish is as small as a shrimp.

To heaven or to hell, I will to with you.

He feels as if he could crumb the earth into pieces.

Allusion暗指;allusion is another kind of metaphor. It is used to refer to something that is well-known in literature or history to express your point.

This story is actually a new version of King Lear’s tragedy.

Many Americans were worried that the war in Iraq would become a second Vietnam War.

After getting tired of the Tom-and-Jerry games in a high school, he quit his teaching job.Want to make a million dollars overnight? Have you got the Aladdin’s lamp yet?

Paradox悖论refers to seemingly self-contradictory statement that actually is true.it may appear totally senseless on the surface but is really valid.

Rewards are not always proportionate to efforts.

You achieve your goal only to find out that it’s not what you want. Ignorance is joy.

Onomatopoeia 拟声; means to take advantage of the words whose sounds are associated with the objects or actions they represent. Onomatopoeia generates sounds.

“We won!” my boss chortled in joy.

The ghost chortled as it was getting closer to him in the nightmare howl.

One of the war phots recorded a mother howling over the dead body of her child.

Better wind howled through the naked trees.

The horses snorted when pulling the wagon up the mountain road. That old steam-engine train snorted as it left the train station.“That is my father.” she whispered to him.

Leaves were whispering in the autumn wind.

A little boy was wailing for a toy train.An ambulance wailed down the street.

A dog barked at the stranger.

“Hold it! Or I’ll shoot,” the farmer barked at the intruder.

The roar of a lion echoed in the valley.

“Get out!” he roared, “I don’t want to see your face again!”

Several young sparrows were ing in their nest.

He could not sleep because several little girls were ing outside the window.下载本文