Part A: Capital Budgeting
1.Cash Flow Projections
Initial Outlay = FC Investment + NWC Investment - Salvage0 + T (Salvage0- Book Value0)
Annual ATCF = (S-C-D) (1-T) + Depreciation
Terminal Year Non-Operating Cash Flow: Salvage T + NWC Investment - T (Salvage T - Book Value T)
Effect of Inflation:
-Real cash flows are adjusted downward to remove the effect of inflation.
-Inflation Equation: (1+ Nominal) = (1 + Real) (1+ Inflation)
-Inflation reduces the value of depreciation tax saving, and lower inflation reduces real tax.
-Higher inflation, lower profitability.
-Higher inflation, more wealth shifted from bondholders to issuing corporations.
2.Project Analysis
Mutually Exclusive Projects with Unequal Lives (Repeating assumption required)
-Least Common Multiples: using least common multiple to make lives equal. Highest NPV is chosen
-Equivalent Annual Annuity: Distribute NPV to entire life as equal amount. Highest EAA is chosen
Capital Rationing
-Used when investor has fixed budget. NPV or PI (= 1 + NPV/Investment) criterion applied.
-Capital Rationing has the potential to misallocate resources
Risk Analysis
-Stand-Alone Methods: Sensitivity Analysis, Scenario Analysis, Monte-Carlo Simulation
-Market Risk Methods: CAPM
Real Options
-Categories: Timing Options, Sizing Options, Flexibility Options, Fundamental Options
-Approaches: DCF without Options, NPV-Cost of Options + Value of Options. Decision Trees, Pricing Models
3.Alternative Capital Budgeting Approaches
Economic and Accounting Income
-Economic Income = Cash Flow + (Ending Market Value – Beginning Market Value)
Economic Profit = EBIT (1-T) – WACC * Capital Investment, discounted at WACC.
Residual Income: NI – Equity Charge, discounted at Cost of Equity
Claims Valuation
-Value of Claims should equal value of assets.
Part B: Capital Structure
1.Business Risk and Financial Risk
Sales Risk: measured by standard deviation of sales and mean value of sales.
Operating Risk:
-Greater the fixed costs, more difficult for a company to adjust operating costs to change in sales.
-Degree of Operating Leverage: Q(P-V)/[Q(P-V)-F]
-Industries having high operating leverage: large amount invested up front.
Financial Risk:
-Fixed costs: long-term lease and debt.
-Degree of Financial Leverage: [Q(P-V)-F]/[Q(P-V)-F-C]
-Financial Leverage is the choice of management.
Total Leverage: Operating leverage * Financial Leverage.
Breakeven Points: number of unit that makes net income be zero.
-QBE = (F+C)/(P-V)
Risks of Debtors and Owners: Debtors have more protections and predefined yet limited returns, at the cost of right to make decisions over company’s business.
2.Capital Structure Decision
WACC: (D/V) (1-T) rd + (E/V) re
MM Proposition 1 without taxes: Capital Structure Irrelevant
-Assumptions: investors agree on expected cash flow from a given investment; perfect capital market holds.
-Equation: Unlevered Value = Levered Value.
MM proposition 2 without taxes: Higher Financial Leverage Raises Cost of Equity
-Assumption: Financial Distress has no costs; more debt makes equity riskier.
-Equation:
Cost of Equity = Cost of Assets + (Cost of Assets – Cost of Debt) (D/E)
Equity Beta = Asset Beta + (Asset Beta – Debt Beta) (D/E)
Tax and Cost of Capital
-Levered Value = Unlevered Value + Td (Tax Shield on Interest)
Cost of Financial Distress
-Expected Cost of Financial Distress: Likelihood of financial distress and cost of financial distress/bankruptcy
-Direct Costs: actual cash expenses associated with bankruptcy process
-Indirect Costs: foregone investment opportunities, impaired ability to conduct business, agency costs
Agency Costs: Cost associated with fact that all public companies and large private companies.
-Components: Monitoring Costs, Bonding Costs, Residual Loss
-Better governed, lower agency costs
Cost of Asymmetric Information
-Managers have more information on company than outsiders.
Optimal Capital Structure: Levered Value = Unlevered Value + Tax Shield on Interest – PV of Financial Distress Costs
-Tax benefit from the deductibility of the interest expense on debt must be balanced against the risk associated with the use of debt (distress)
-This is also called “stasis trade-off theory”. Highest value do not necessary align with high debt ratio.
-Country Specific Factors and the Assumed Impacts on Companies’ Capital Structure
| Specific Factors | If a Country is/has … | … then D/E is potentially … | … and Debt Maturity is … |
| Legal System Efficiency | More efficient | Lower | Longer |
| Legal System Origin | Common law rather civil law | Lower | Longer |
| Information Intermediaries | Auditors and analysts | Lower | Longer |
| Taxation | Taxes favor equity | Lower | Depends |
| Equity and Bond Markets | Active market | Depends | Longer |
| Bank-Based/Market-Based | Bank-based financial system | Higher | Depends |
| Investors | Large institutional investors | Lower | Longer |
| Inflation | High | Lower | Shorter |
| Growth | high | Depends | Longer |
Part C: Dividend Policy
1.Dividends
Regular Dividends: companies choose to distribute dividends on a regular schedule.
-Increasing dividends may indicate growth, but may signal that company has no profitable investment opportunity.
-Dividend Reinvestment Plans: dividend automatically reinvested in shares.
Extra Dividends: one-time extra payment
-Cyclical companies prefer this form.
Liquidation Dividends: paid when company liquidates, and there are leftovers.
-Treated as capital gain.
Stock Dividends and Stock Splits
-Cost basis remains but cost per share reduces. No effect on capital structure.
Share Repurchases: alternative cash dividends.
2.Dividend payment Chronology
Declaration Date, Ex-Dividend Date (traded without dividend), Holder-of-Record Date, Payment Date
3.Factors Affecting Dividend Policy
Taxation
-Taxation on: dividend income (income tax), capital appreciation (capital gain tax)
-Methods: double taxation, split-rate and imputation
Calculation:
| Double Taxation | Split-Rate Taxation | Imputation Taxation | |
| Corporate Level: NIBT | Corporate Income Tax (CIT) | Corporate Income Tax (CIT) Income Allocation Tax (IAT) | Corporate Income Tax (CIT) |
| -Retained -Dividends | -Taxed (CIT) -Taxed (CIT) | -Taxed (CIT) -Taxed (IAT) | -Taxed (CIT) -Taxed (CIT) |
| Personal Level: Dividends | Personal Income Tax (PIT) | Personal Income Tax (PIT) | Personal Income Tax (PIT) |
| Net Income | = NIBT * (1- CIT) | = NIBT * (1 - CIT – IAT) | = NIBT * (1-CIT) |
| Net Dividend | = Div * (1- CIT - PIT) | = Div * (1 - IAT – PIT) | = Div – NIBT * (1 – PIT + CIT) |
Floatation Costs on New Issues versus Retained Earnings
-Floatation costs: percentage cost of new common share issuance, higher for small firms.
-Because of floatation costs, new share issue is more costly than retained earnings.
Restrictions on Dividend Payments
-Formal: legal restriction, debt covenants, etc
-Informal: cash flow constraints, industry life cycle.
Clientele Effect: preference some investors have for shares that exhibit certain characteristics.
-Tax effect, institutional investor characteristics, legal requirements, etc
Signaling Effect
-Dividend payments have positive signaling effect that company’s earnings are growing.
-Dividend cuts often signals that company has earnings problems.
4.Dividend Policies
Residual Dividends: if there is excess earnings, dividends may be paid.
-Advantage: free usage of funds generated internally
-Disadvantage: widely fluctuating of dividends
-Combination: more stable dividends combined with share repurchases
Stable Dividends: dividends are stable or nearly stable over a long period.
-Advantage: predictable dividends
-Disadvantage: restricted use of funds
Target Payout Ratio: the payout ratio is defined.
-Equation: increase in earnings * payout ratio * Adjustment Factor
Adjustment Factor: 1/period to adjustment
Share Repurchases
-Appealing Investment to Corporate itself; signaling effect; altering capital structure
5.Valuation implications
-Taxation is different between income and capital gain
-Restrictions to dividend payment and de facto requirements need to be obtained
-Ownership structure and ensuing agency problem
-Share Repurchase and Stock Dividends do not alter Free Cash Flow to Equity.
-Dividend that reduces the cost of equity while maintain the growth rate will increase leading P/E.
Part D: Corporate Governance
1.Form of Business and Conflict of Interest
| Characteristic | Sole Proprietorship | Partnership | Corporation |
| Ownership | Sole Owner | Multiple Owner | Unlimited Ownership |
| Legal Requirement | Few; easy to establish | Few; easy to establish | Complicated Requirements |
| Legal Distinction | None | None | Legal Separation |
| Liability | Unlimited | Unlimited, shared | Limited |
| Ability to Raise Capital | Very Limited | Limited | Nearly Unlimited |
| Transferability | Non-transferable | Non-transferable | Easily Transferable |
| Owner Expertise | Essential | Essential | Unnecessary |
| Conflict of Interest | Little | Little | Agency Problem |
Objectives:
-To eliminate or mitigate conflict of interest between managers and shareholders
-To ensure that assets are used efficiently and productively and in the best of its investors and other stakeholders
Core Attribute of Effective Corporate Governance
-Delineation of the rights of shareholders and other core stakeholders
-Cleary defined manager and director governance responsibilities to stakeholders
-Identifiable and measurable accountabilities for the performance of the responsibilities
-Fairness and equitable treatment in all dealings between managers, directors and shareholders
-Complete transparency and accuracy in disclosing regarding operations, performances, risk, and financial position
3.Corporate Governance Evaluation
Board of Directors
1)Board Composition and Independence: at least 3/4 of the board members should be independent.
-Lack of Independence: former employment, business relationships, personal relationships, inter-locking directorships, ongoing banking and other creditor relationships
2)Independent Chairman of the Board: necessary condition, but not a sufficient one
3)Qualification of Directors: independence, relevant expertise, ethical soundness, experience in strategic planning and risk management, dedication and commitment to serving the board, commitment to the needs of investors
4)Annual Election of Directors: annual election serves best interest of investors.
5)Annual Board Self-Assessment: effectives as a whole, individual performance, committee activities, assessment in effectiveness in monitoring and overseeing, report of self-assessment, etc
6)Separate Session of Independent Directors: independent directors meet at least annually without presence of management, other representatives, or interested persons.
7)Audit Committee and Audit Oversight: independent, expertise, proper resources and authority, etc
8)Nomination Committee: only independent directors
9)Compensation Committee: independent, expertise, well-informed
10)Board’s Independent Legal and Expert Counsel: must have.
11)Statement of Governance Policies
12)Disclosure and Transparency
13)Insider or Related Party Transactions: prior approval and statements indicating such transactions are consistent with company policy
14)Responsiveness of Board of Directors to Shareholder Proxy Votes
4.Environmental, Social and Governance Factors (ESG)
Risks: Legislative and Regulatory, Legal, Reputational, Operating, Financial
5.Valuation implications
Accounting Risk: financial statements and related disclosures are incomplete, misleading, or materially misstated
Asset Risk: assets will be misappropriated by managers or directors in the form of excessive compensation, etc
Liability Risk: managements will enter into excessive obligations and commitments that will destroy the value of shareholder’s equity.
Strategic Policy Risk: transactions may not be in the best long-term interest of shareholders, but may results large payoffs for management or directors.
Part E: Mergers & Acquisitions
1.Types of Merger
| Type of Merger | Description |
| Horizontal Merger | Merging companies are in the same business |
| Vertical Merger | Merging companies are along the value chain |
| -Forward Integration | Target company is the customer |
| -Backward Integration | Target company is the supplier |
| Conglomerate Merger | Unrelated Business |
Synergy, Growth, Increasing Market Power, Acquiring Unique Capabilities and Resources, Diversification, Bootstrapping Earnings (one own share in exchange more than one target shares), Manager’s Personal Incentives, Tax Consideration, Unlocking Hidden Value, Cross-Border Motives
Business Cycle and Merger
| Industry Life Cycle | Types of Merger |
| Pioneering Development | Conglomerate, Horizontal |
| Rapid Accelerating Growth | Conglomerate, Horizontal |
| Mature Growth | Horizontal, Vertical |
| Stabilization and Market Maturity | Horizontal |
| Deceleration Growth and Decline | Conglomerate, Horizontal, Vertical |
Transaction Types
| Item | Stock Purchase | Asset Purchase |
| Payment | Share exchange to shareholders | Cash paid to management |
| Approval | Shareholder approval required | Shareholder approval optional |
| Corporate Tax | No | Yes on capital gain |
| Shareholder’s Tax | Capital Gain | No |
| Target Liability | Assumed | Avoided assuming |
-Cash offering locks the takeover premium for target, and acquirer assumes risk and reward from the deal.
-In stock offering, exchange ratio is set.
-Form of payment has the impact on risk and reward distribution.
-Relative valuation may be influenced.
Target Attitude: Friendly and Hostile (bypassing management, tender offer, proxy fight)
4.Takeovers (Hostile Merger)
| Pre-Merger Defense | Post-Merger Defense | ||
| Type | Description | Type | Description |
| Poison Pills | Prohibitive Costly for Merger Transactions to take place | “Just Say No” | Just decline |
| Poison Puts | Rights to Target Bondholder to Put the Bond | Litigation | File a lawsuit |
| Restrictive Takeover Law | Legal Limits | Greenmail | Repurchase own share back at a premium |
| Staggered Board of Directors | Keep Directors in Seats | Share Repurchase | Alter Capital Structure |
| Restrictive Voting Rights | Restricted Voting Rights for Above-Level Shareholders | Leveraged Recapitalization | Alter Capital Structure |
| Supermajority Voting | Higher percentage approval | “Crown Jewel” | Sell attractive assets |
| Fair Price Amendments | Minimum Payment | “Pac-Man” | Counteroffer |
| Golden Parachutes | Allowing executives to receive lucrative payouts | “White-Knight” | Introduce Third Party |
1)Target Company Valuation
| Item | DCF | Comparable Company | Comparable Transaction |
| Advantage | 1)Change in target’s cash flows can be modeled 2)Estimate of intrinsic value is provided by model 3)Change in assumptions can be incorporated | 1)Reasonable approximations 2)Required data available 3)Value are derived directly through market | 1)No need to separate takeover premium 2)Market availability of data 3)Litigation risk reduced |
| Disadvantage | 1)Difficult to apply when free cash flow do not align with profitability 2)Great future uncertainty 3)Discount rate changes with time 4)Terminal value estimate often subject to value calculation | 1)Sensitive to market mispricing 2)Fair takeover price needed 3)Difficult to incorporate any specific plans 4)Data may not be timely or accurate | 1)Real takeover value may not be accurate 2)Data not available 3)Difficult to incorporate any specific plans |
Post-Merger Value = Pre-Merger Values for Both Companies + Synergies – Cash Paid
Acquirer’s Gain = Synergies – Premium
Target’s Premium = Price paid for Target – Pre-merger Value of Target
3)Mergers that create value:
Buyer is strong; transaction premium is slow; number of bidders is low; initial market reaction is favorable
6.Corporate Restructuring
Reasons for restructuring: change in strategic focus, poor fit, reserve synergy, financial/cash flow needs
Types
| Type | Description |
| Divestiture | Company sells assets (General Term) |
| Equity Carve-out | Creation of new entity and sales of equity in it |
| Spin-off | Shareholders receive shares in a new, separate entity |
| Split-off | Shareholders exchange shares with newly created entity |
| Liquidation | Breaking up and selling assets piecemeal |