In the study of words, it is of great importance to know something about the origin and growth of the vocabulary. The English language is not the language of the early inhabitants of the British Isles. Then where does it come from? In what way is English related to other languages? A synchronic overview of the Indo-European Language Family will answer these questions.
3.1 The Indo-European Language Family
The world has 3,000 (some put it 5,000) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar.
The Indo-European, one of these, is made up of most languages of Europe, the Near East and India. Most of the Indo-European languages are dead. The surviving Indo-European languages fall into ten principal groups, which fall into an Eastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Albanian; a Western set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, Germanic, Hittite, and Tocharian.
The Germanic family, which is our chief concern as English and its nearest relations are all members of this family. First, we have the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then come German, Dutch, Flemish and English.
3.2 Three Phases of the Historical Development of English
English has been the language of England for a comparatively short period. Since its introduction into the island about the middle of the fifth century it has had a career extending through only fifteen hundred years. The first peoples known to inhabit the land were Celts. Their languages Celtic were dialects of still another branch of the Indo-European language family. The second major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman Legions.
3.2.1 Old English (450-1150)
The withdrawal of Roman troops virtually invited the invasion of the rich lowlands by the Picts and Scots from the North. The Celts appealed to Germanic warriors from across the North Sea for assistance in defending their land. Soon these German tribes, called Angles, Saxons and Jutes, came in great numbers and became their conquerors.
The Germanic speakers took permanent control of the land that was later to be called England (the land of Angles). Their language, historically known as Anglo-Saxon, dominated and almost totally blotted out the Celtic.
Though the Saxons were numerically superior to the Angles, the latter were influential enough to impose their name on the whole. That is why the country was called England, and the language English. It is from this language that our present-day English is derived.
Old English (the Anglo-Saxon) has a vocabulary of about 50, 000 to 60,000 words, which are almost monogeneous and entirely Germanic with only a few borrowings from Latin and Scandinavian.
Old English was a highly inflected language, which differ greatly from the language that we use today.
3.2.2 Middle English (1150-1500)
The Danish rule continued from 1016 to 1042. Then the Saxon Dynasty was restored and Edward the Confessor, who had no children, came to the English throne and reigned over a united England until 1066. At his death, Harold succeeded him as king of the country. As he was not in the direct line of succession, his rule was opposed by William, Duke of Normandy, first cousin of Edward, for William considered himself the rightful heir to the throne. The English nobles disagreed, so William invaded the island. At the battle of Hastings (1066), the power of Harold was crushed and William became master of England. This event was known in history as the Norman Conquest. However, the influx of French words into English did not occur until after 1300. Norman French became the polite speech. The native tongue was a despised language which was left to the use of boors and serfs.
In the next hundred years or so, with the separation of the two nations, the nobility of England still spoke French, but bit by bit English came back into the schools, the law courts and government and regained social status. It made the final step back to a position of importance when it emerged once again as a respected literary medium with the Wycliff translation of the Bible and the writings of Chaucer, Langland and others. Norman French was a class language, never the speech of England.
The Middle English period was one of great changes, changes more extensive and fundamental than those that had taken place at any time before and since. The single most significant fact of this period was the steady erosion of the Old English inflectional systems. If we say that the Old English was a period of full endings, the Middle English was a period of leveled endings. Another significant point is the French influence on English vocabulary. The number of French words that poured into English was unbelievably great and covered every realm of culture and society.
3.2.3 Modern English (1500-up to the present )
Modern English dates from the Caxton and the establishment of printing in England. It may be subdivided into Early Modern English (1500-1700) and Late Modern English (1700- up to the present).
In the early period of Modern English, enormous numbers of Latin words became English words because of the Renaissance. These contributed to the decidedly Latinate flavour of Modern English. Now the rapidly expanding use of printing and the needs of the schools began to set standard spellings for most words.
Since the mid-seventeenth century, England experienced the Bourgeois Revolution followed by the Industrial Revolution and rose to be a great economic power, thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.
Since the beginning of 20th century, particularly after World War II, thousands and thousands of new words have been created to express new ideas, inventions and scientific achievements.
3.3 General Characteristics of English
3.3.1 Receptivity, Adaptability and Heterogeneity
English has taken to itself material from all other languages and has made the new elements its own. Having received all kinds of foreign elements, the English vocabulary is copious and heterogeneous.
3.3.2 Simplicity of Inflection
Old English was characterized by ‘full endings’, Middle English by ‘leveled endings’ and Modern English by ‘lost endings’.
3.3.3 Relatively Fixed Word-order
In an analytic language like Modern English, the word order is required to be relatively fixed. The semantic relation is closely connected to the positions of the words. The change of word-order may result in a change of meaning.
3.4 Foreign Elements in the English Vocabulary
Of all the foreign languages from which words have been borrowed into English, Latin, Greek, French and Scandinavian stand out as the major contributors, which have had great influence on the English language vocabulary.
3.4.1 Latin
For 2,000 years Modern English vocabulary has borrowed so heavily and complexly from Latin.
1) The Pre-Anglo-Saxon Period
During the Pre-Anglo-Saxon Period the words borrowed naturally reflected the new conceptions and experience in war and agriculture, e.g. battle, banner, cheese, pepper, butter, etc.
2) The Old English Period
Borrowings of this period came in the wake of the introduction of Christianity into Britain in 597. In the four hundred years or more up to the Norman Conquest, a variety of additional Latin words were adopted. Among the church terms are altar, candle, creed, disciple, nun, etc.
3) The Middle English Period
The Norman Conquest marked the beginning of the third period of borrowing from Latin, though many of them made their way through French. The lexical settlers of Latin via French are generally more popular than those borrowed directly from Latin. The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were especially prolific in Latin borrowings under the influence of Renaissance. The following is a list of direct Latin borrowings in this period: gesture, history, include, incredible, individual, innumerable, necessary, nervous, picture, polite, popular, prevent, private, solar, temporal, etc. It is noticeable that some of the Latin suffixes, -able, -ible, -al, -ous, -ive and others now become common in English.
4) The Modern English Period
Words borrowed since 1,500 are late ones, which are mostly of abstract and scientific character. These words generally retain their Latin forms: focus, status, circus, apparatus, genius, esteem, minimum, maximum, via, criteria, species, series, protest, enterprise, etc.
Many of the frequently used abbreviations are from Latin:
i.e. (id est) = that is to say
e.g. (exempli gratia) = for example
a.m. (ante meridiem) = before noon
etc. (et cetera) = and so on
p.m. (post meridiem) = after noon
cf. (confer) = compare
ibid. (ibidem) = in the same place
3.4.2 Greek
The influx of Greek words into English began with the revival of learning from Greek classics. Here is a selection of such borrowings, which, even if through Latin and French, remain identifiably Greek in form, e.g. democracy, politics, logic, philosophy, atom, geography, mathematics, clinic, diagnosis, alphabet, drama, grammar, idiom, poem, poet, rhythm, athlete, marathon, architect, hero, idiot, method, music, mystery, etc.
The greatest influence of Greek perhaps lies in its loan of word-building elements into English. The Greek and Latin elements are assimilated with native elements in such a way that they can be mixed to form new words, known as hybrids. For example, anti- and hyper-, which are Greek prefixes, meaning ‘against’ and ‘beyond’ respectively, can be added to English root as in anti-British and to Latin root as in hypersensitive. The Greek verb suffix –ize can be fixed at the end of words of any origin to form verbs, e.g. popularize, westernize, etc.
3.4.3 French
It is estimated that about one fourth of modern English vocabulary has come from French. Until the Norman Conquest, the exchange of words between English and French had been minimal. But when William the Conqueror ascended the English throne, French suddenly became the language of government. Almost overnight English had become a second class language in its native land. In the one and the half centuries immediately after the Conquest, a number of probably fewer than 1,00 French words were absorbed into the permanent vocabulary of English.
The supremacy of French began to recede in the mid-13th century, when the acculturated descendants of the invaders at last began to think of themselves more as Englishmen than French and with it Norman French gave way to English. Borrowing from French now was free. Between 1250 and 1500 an approximate 9,000 words of French origin poured into the language, of which at least 75 percent are still in use today, e.g. govern, crown, country, power, council, people, nation, prince, duke, judge, jury, court, angel, sacrifice, miracle, preach, virtue, duty, conscience, war, battle, captain, soldier, beef, mutton, pork, bacon, roast, soup, supper, feast, tower, castle, fashion, dress, coat, fur, joy, pleasure, leisure, sport, etc.
Although the rate of foreign borrowings tapered off to a certain extent during the 15th century, it sharply revived in the 16th and the English Renaissance. Nevertheless, new French borrowings during this period tended to be supplementary rather than central to the English vocabulary as there was a resistance that grew on the part of the English to borrowing of any kind. In the 150 years between 1650 and 1800, less than half as many French words were brought into English as had been added in the preceding years of the same length of time. Such words as ballet, dentist, cartoon, publicity, ridicule, routine are representatives of the hundreds of words absorbed in the period under discussion.
Contemporary French influence on English since 1800 is difficult to define. But one thing is certain that the rate at which we have borrowed has increased considerably over that of the 18th century though the rate is still a fraction of what it was in the Middle Ages.
3.4.4 Scandinavian
The Scandinavian languages: Norwegian, Swedish, Danish and Icelandic, constitute the northern branch of the Germanic group. The earliest recorded form of Scandinavian is Old Norse. The Vikings, who were first to raid Britain in A.D. 787, were a Germanic people closely related to the Anglo-Saxons, who had originally lived just south of them on the Continent. Their languages known as Old Norse were very similar to Old English. Sharing a stock of basic words, the two peoples could understand each other quite well. In the 200 years that followed from the Norsemen invasion, Norsemen swarmed into the British Isles and occupied the greater part of the land, which remained bilingual. However, the English element eventually prevailed and the descendants of the Norsemen gradually forgot Norse and spoke English. The English then was the result of the fusion of the two peoples and cultures. Accordingly, hundreds of words were permanently absorbed into the English vocabulary. Many of these were basic and everyday words, often displacing original English ones such as skill, husband, sister, bag, bank, club, both, they, them, get, take, die, hit, happy, low, tight, ugly, wrong, etc.
Numerically, the Scandinavian words in the English vocabulary are not many as compared with those of French.
3.4.5 Other Foreign Elements
As we have mentioned above, English is a heavy borrower, which has absorbed words from all the major languages of the world with which it has had contact. Apart from Latin, Greek, French and Scandinavian, the other elements are much less important. Even among the minor languages, Italian, German, Dutch and Spanish have made considerable contributions to the English vocabulary. All the others are felt to be superficial.
1) Italian
Some of the Italian words borrowed into English are: corridor, balcony, design, sonnet, model, picturesque, piano, violin, concert, opera, spaghetti, macaroni, broccoli, campaign, cannon, attitude, casino, influenza, jeans, umbrella, volcano, etc.
2) German
The number of German borrowings is limited, some of them are nickel, Fahrenheit, ecology, hamburger, noodle, dollar, kindergarten, semester.
3) Dutch
Dutch is closely related to English. As the Dutch were leaders in the sea and the seafaring as well as industry, and transportation, especially in the golden ages in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries, three quarters of the Dutch borrowings occurred during this period: yacht, sledge, stove, landscape, sketch, skate, boss, Santa Claus, etc.
4) Spanish and Portuguese
Words from Portuguese are mainly associated with slave culture. The more recent loanwords coming directly from Portuguese include Negro, potato, cafeteria, zebra, apricot, banana, etc.
5) Celtic
Celtic is the language spoken by the earliest people in the British Isles, but unfortunately it has hardly had any influence on English vocabulary. Only a meager handful of Celtic words are left in English: dun, slough etc. the Celtic element is also found largely in place names such as rivers (Thames, Avon) and city names (York, London, Kent).
There are some other loan words borrowed from other languages.
Arabic: alcohol, coffee, cotton, magazine, muslin, sofa etc.
Indian: candy, pajamas, shampoo etc.
Russian: czar, vodka etc.
Czech: robot.
Bulgarian: coach
Persian: bazaar, orange, check, lilac etc.
Turkish: turkey, yoghurt etc.
Malay: bamboo, caddy etc.
Polynesian: taboo, tattoo
Japanese: kimono, karate, judo, tatami, etc.
Australian aboriginal dialect: kangaroo, koala
American Indian: moose, raccoon etc
Mexican: chocolate, tomato etc.
Caribbean: barbecue, canoe, hurricane, maize etc.
African: lion, paper, sack etc.
Chinese: typhoon, tea, china, chopsticks, tofu, yin-yang, zongzi, etc.
In earlier times, borrowing was a very important means of vocabulary development. While in modern times, the role of borrowing is diminishing and can hardly compare with some of the means of word-creation such as affixation, compounding and conversion.下载本文