本科毕业论文
题 目： 论中英亲属称谓的异同
学院名称： 外国语学院
专业班级： 英语专业08级英本4班
毕业年份： 2012年6月
* ** * * *
学 号 *********
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职 称： 副 教 授
渭南师范学院教务处 制
The Cultural Differences and similarities between Chinese and English Kinship Terms
By
Yang Haiying
A Thesis Presented to School of Foreign Languages of
Weinan Normal University
as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Bachelor of Arts
May 17, 2012
Class: Class 4 of 2008
Advisor: Guo Zhengxia
论中英亲属称谓的异同
摘要: 语言和文化有着很密切的关系，所以，如果人们要学好一门语言，那么了解其文化是非常重要的。你理解语言的文化传统、习俗、生活方式以及生活细节越多，你就越能正确地理解并准确地使用这种语言。称谓语是民族传统文化和历史积淀的反映,不同的称谓语分别体现不同的民族文化。事实上，文化塑造并影响着语言，同时，语言又反映着文化。本文主要有三个部分，第一部分主要从相同的功能和相似的分类来阐述中英亲属称谓的相同点。第二部分主要从旁系关系和直系关系，血亲关系和姻亲关系，父系关系和母系关系，性别，长幼关系和辈分顺序，派生的亲属称谓六个方面来阐述中英亲属关系称谓的不同。第三部分主要从家庭结构，历史背景，来源等等，来分析中英亲属称谓不同的原因。
关键字：亲属称谓；中英文亲属称谓的对比；文化差异
The Cultural Differences and similarities between Chinese and English Kinship Terms
Abstract: Language and culture have very close relationship. It is very necessary and important to learn a kind of language well and know the culture well, The more understanding of the language's culture, traditions, customs, lifestyles as well as details of life, the more you can correctly understand and accurately use the language. Kinship terms are reflections of traditional ethnic culture and historical accumulation and different addressing terms respectively embody different ethnic cultures. In fact, language is influenced and shaped by culture, at the same time, language reflects the culture. In this paper, there are three main parts. The first part describes the similarities between English and Chinese kinship terms from two aspects: same functions and similar categories. The second part describes the differences between English and Chinese kinship terms from six aspects: between collateral relations and lineal relations, between blood relation and affined relations, between elder-younger relations and seniority order, between paternal and maternal kinship terms, between gender kinship terms, and derivatives. The third part, from family structures, historical background, sources and other reasons, explains the reasons of the cultural differences between English and Chinese kinship terms.
Key words: Kinship terms; Contrast between English and Chinese kinship terms; Cultural differences
Table of Contents
I. Introduction
Language is not only a kind of cultural expression, but also the bridge of communication and kinship terms are indispensable to communication. Kinship term system is a very important part of language expression. Therefore, the kinship terms should be paid more attention. It is impossible to learn English well if you do not understand the British and American cultural background knowledge, especially, the kinship terms. So the different kinship terms between English and Chinese are importance in studying English. And this paper mainly talks about the differences and the similarities between English and Chinese kinship terms, including the reasons of forming these differences.
Kinship terms, according to E.R.Leach, are "category words by means of which an individual is taught to recognize the significant groupings in the social structure into which he is born"(1958, P.143). Nowadays, Kinship terms belong to social language and they are used widely in daily communicative life. Therefore, the comparative study of kinship terms in Chinese and English is to understand better different cultural implication and make sure that communication is going on well. So, if we want to learn English, we must pay more attention to kinship terms.
In this paper, there are 3 main parts, the first part describes the similarities between English and Chinese kinship term from 2 aspects: same functions and similar categories. The second part describes the differences between English and Chinese kinship terms from 6 aspects: between collateral relations and lineal relations, between blood relation and affined relations, between elder-younger relations and seniority, between paternal and maternal kinship terms, between gender kinship terms, and derivatives. The third part, according to family structures, historical background, sources and other reason to explain the reason of the cultural difference between English and Chinese kinship terms.
II. Comparison between English and Chinese Kinship Term Systems
There are both similarities and differences between English and Chinese kinship terms; there are not so many limits. They have some similarities in the kinship terms’ functions and categories. At the same time, because English and Chinese languages have defined their own set of kinship terms and the roles they serve in the society. There are a lot of differences between English and Chinese kinship terms. English kinship terms are less complicated than Chinese kinship terns. In Chinese, kinship terms are oriented by generation, age, paternal and maternal relationships and in-law relationships. But in England, the way people address others are very random. Then, we will talk the similarities and differences between English and Chinese kinship terms.
A. Similarities of English and Chinese kinship terms
People from different countries have different cultures, but there are many similarities in cultures. Kinship terms must have some similarities in different countries too. It’s necessary to realize the similarities of the kinship terms. It may promote people to get along well with each other. So, the analysis of them is quite important.
1. The Same Functions
English and Chinese kinship term have many important social functions. Generally, no matter English kinship or Chinese kinship terms, they have a basic functions, linking function. according to the linking function of human communication, communication is used to establish relationships between the individual and the environment, and that people use symbols to create a desired image to facilitate this linking to the environment. Thus, the individual is consubstantial with society.
2. Similar Categories
No matter English kinship terms or Chinese kinship terms, they can be divided into two parts：the kinship terms and the social terms. Kinship system is not only a universal feature of languages, but also a result of the importance in social organization. Social term means the usage of all kinship term strategies and regulations between different social groups and social organizations in their communication according to their social positions and social roles.
B. Differences between English and Chinese kinship terms
English and Chinese kinship terms stem from two different civilization traditions that have their own evolving history. It is not strange that there are many differences between the two. It is very important to understand these differences, only in this way can avoid many problems in intercultural communications. And then , there 5 key points will be followed.
1. Between collateral relations and lineal relations.
In Chinese kinship terms, there is some difference between collateral relations and lineal relations, but in English kinship terms, there is little difference. First, please look at the following 2 tables; they will help us to understand the differences between collateral relations and lineal relations.
Table 1 Lineal relations
| Relation | Chinese Terms | English Terms |
| paternal grandfather maternal grandfather | zu fu（祖父） wai zu fu（外祖父） | grandfather |
| paternal grandfather maternal grandfather | zu mu（祖母） wai zu mu（外祖母） | grandmother |
| father | fu qin（父亲） | father |
| mother | mu qin（母亲） | mother |
| elder brother younger brother | ge ge（哥哥） di di （弟弟） | brother |
| elder sister younger sister | jie jie（姐姐） mei mei（妹妹） | sister |
| son | er zi（儿子） | son |
| daughter | nv er（女儿） | daughter |
| son's son daughter's son | sun zi（孙子） wai sun（外孙） | grandson |
| son's daughter daughter's daughter | sun nv（孙女） wai sun nv（外孙女） | granddaughter |
Table 2 Collateral relations
| Relations | Chinese Terms | English Terms |
| father's elder brother father's younger brother mother's brother | bo fu（伯父） shu fu（叔父） jiu fu（舅父） | uncle |
| father's sister mother's sister | gu mu（姑妈） yi mu（姨妈） | aunt |
| father's brother's son father's sister's son mother's brother's son mother's sister's son father's brother's daughter father's sister's daughter mother's brother's daughter mother's sister's daughter | tang ge/di（堂哥／弟） gu biao ge/di（姑表哥／弟） jiu biao ge/di（舅表哥／弟） yi biao ge/di（姨表哥／弟） tang jie/mei（堂姐／妹） gu biao jie/mei（姑表姐／妹） jiu biao jie/mei（舅表姐／妹） yi biao jie/mei（姨表姐／妹） | cousin |
| Brother’s son Sister’s son Wife’s sibling’s son | zhi zi（侄子） wai sheng（外甥） biao zhi（表侄） | nephew |
| brother’s daughter sister’s daughter wife’s sibling’s daughter | zhi nv（侄女） wai sheng nv（外甥女） biao zhi nv（表侄女） | niece |
2. Between blood relation and affined relations.
About the blood relation and relations by marriage, these people are called relations with blood; and those are called relation by marriage. In Chinese, their kinship terms are different and are very clear. In paternal clan, bo fu, shu fu, jiu fu, gu mu, and yi mu belong to blood relation; Gu fu, yi fu, bo mu, shen mu, and jiu mu, belong to relations by marriage. At the same time, it reflects that Chinese have strong clan relative sense.
But in English, there is no classification between blood relation and relations by marriage. There being an example is the kinship term uncle. According to Ullmann (1962), the English word "uncle" comes via French from the Latin avunculus, which meant only one kind of uncle, namely, the mother’s brother, whereas the father’s brother was called patruus. Since the latter word fell into disuse, the descendants of avunculus have come to stand for both kinds of uncle, so that the range of the Latin term has been doubled (p. 228).In the OXFORD ADVANCED LEARNER’S English-Chinese Dictionary, the word, uncle, is explained: 1. the brother of one's father; 2. the brother of one's mother; 3. the husband of one's aunt (p.1915). And the same, aunt is explained: 1. a sister of one's mother; 2. a sister of one's father; 3. the wife of one's uncle (p.95). So, based on the above examples, uncle includes parents' brothers and parents' sisters' husbands, for example, gu fu, shu fu, jiu fu, gu zhang and yi zhang; aunt means parents' sisters and parents' brothers' wives, such as gu mu, yi mu, bo mu, shen mu and jiu mu.
Of course, English does not ignore relations by marriage, in English, there often has a suffix in-laws followed by some kinship terms of blood relation, for instance, brother-in-laws ,this word means jie fu, mei fu, husbands' jie fu , husbands' mei fu, nei xiong, nei di, da bo zi and xiao shu zi.
There is a table to show the affined relations:
Table 3 Affined relations
| Relation | Chinese Term | English Term |
| wife's/husband's father | yue fu /gong gong（岳父／公公） | father-in-law |
| wife's/husband's mother | yue mu/po po（岳母／婆婆） | mother-in-law |
| father's sister's husband mother's sister's husband | gu fu（姑父） yi fu（姨夫） | uncle |
| father's elder brother's wife father's younger brother's wife mother's brother's wife | bo mu（伯母） shen mu（婶母） jiu mu（舅母） | aunt |
| wife/husband | qi zi/zhang fu（妻子丈夫） | wife/husband |
| elder sister's husband younger sister's husband husband'selder/younger brother wife's brother | jie fu（姐夫） mei fu（妹夫） da bo/xiao shu（大／伯小叔） da/xiao jiu zi（大／小舅子） | brother-in-law |
| elder brother's wife younger brother's wife wife's elder/younger sister brother's wife | sao zi（嫂子） di xi（弟媳） da/xiao yi zi（大／小姨子） zhou li（妯娌） | sister-in-law |
| son's wife | er xi（儿媳） | daughter-in-law |
| daughter husband | nv xu（女婿） | son-in-law |
3. Between paternal and maternal kinship terms
In contrast to English kinship terms, the Chinese kinship system is more complicated. There are many differences in paternal and maternal kinship terms.
Chinese kinship emphasizes paternal kinship, while English is not. Chinese people attach much importance to consanguineous relations rather than affined relations which connotes by kinship terms apparently. The difference between "close" and "distant" is taken seriously in Chinese culture. Paternal lineages are more "close" than maternal ones. Usually, paternal lineages is labeled "tang", such as "tang ge/ di", "father’s brother’s son, while maternal lineages is labe1ed"biao"，such as "biao ge／di "(mother’s brother’s son). In Chinese kinship system, affined relations, i.e. in-laws, 0uses of your siblings) have their own specific titles, such as father’s elder brother’s wife is called "bo mu", younger sister’s husband is called "meifu", and so on. In English, maternal and paternal lineages, consanguineous and affined relations are not distinguished so distinctly. We even can not distinguish an "uncle" whether is one’s father’s brother or one’s mother’s brother．
4. Gender kinship terms.
The gender of the relative is distinguished in Chinese culture, while not in English. In Chinese culture，the gender of the relative is distinguished distinctly. For example, title for "father’s brother’s son" is strictly distinguished from that for "father’s brother’s daughter". English kinship system may ignore the sex distinction．For example，all male and female children of a person’s father／mother’s brother／sister can be called "cousin". It may refer to the mother’s brother’s son, mother’s brother’s daughter, mother’s sister’s son, mother’s sister’s daughter, father’s brother’s son, father’s brother’s daughter, father’s sister’s son, father’s sister’s daughter, and so on. Meticulous Chinese kinship system has its roots deep in Chinese culture. It is the product of an agricultural society, a family-centered economy, and a hierarchical family system. Likewise，English kinship system also origins from its own culture. Simple nuclear family, independence of individuals, friendship extended to non—kinship all these factors result in the straightforward English kinship system．
5. Elder-younger relations and seniority order
Traditional Chinese society is organized in vertical structure, and has always advocated family and lives for generations under one roof. Chinese culture lays stress on ”superior controls junior” , in the family, people should respect for seniority, the descendant is not allowed to call the elderly by name, and seniority is extremely important to the level of scale. Therefore, in kinship terms words, the same seniority in the family distinguishes from ge ge and di di, jie jie and mei mei, bo fu and shu fu, bo mu and shen mu. In the different seniority, as to the higher seniority, they can call others who are lower seniority with their full names, including the last name. However, oppositely, the lower seniority can not call the higher seniority with name, it will shows that they are not polite. The kind of idea has rooted in Chinese mind. These older people's kinship terms are sacred title.
However, in English, there is no difference in seniority, and the higher seniority is not important, the descendant and the elderly relate as friends, the descendant is allowed to call the elderly by name. In the western culture, old age is not advantaged. So, in English, we can know that “brother” includes the elder and the younger one, “sister” applied to elder sister and younger sister are both feasible. and there are many word like that, such as, uncle and aunt. Besides, in western country, people usually call families with names or even nick names. For example, in Family Album, U.S.A, the daughter-in-law Marilyn calls her father-in-law Philip with name.(Episode 6,Act Ш).So, in their mind, it will show that they are much closer. The following dialog is taken from Family Album, U.S.A:
1．Ellen：Where are you going，Philip?
Philip：Remember，the Michigan football game?
And Michigan needs a touchdown．
Ellen：Did you forget something?
Robbie：Dad，your famous apple pie．
Philip：Just let me see the score，Ellen．
Marilyn：Go ahead，Philip．We should all take a little break
before dessert．
2．Ellen：Robbie，would you bring the dessert plates．And，
Marilyn，would you pour coffee，please．
Marilyn：Sure，Ellen．
6. Derivatives of kinship terms
Chinese is an analyzing language, the grammar relationship among words is expressed by some other words, and the formation of those words is stable. Therefore, in Chinese, there is no some derivatives expressing “love”. If we need to express love, we can add some words to the front of some kinship term. For example, A ba, A jiu, A mei, hao mama, guai er zi, qin ai de baba, or other words, mei zi, shen er and some kinship terms from Hong Kong and Tai Wan, lao ba, lao ma. And some are from Europe or America, just like ma mi, ba bi, and so on.
But English belongs to comprehensive language, it has own character that the grammar relationship among words is expressed by those words own changing. So, generally, they often add to some suffixes. For instance, mum-mummy, mom-mommy; dad-daddy, dadie; grandpa-grandpop, gramp; grandma-grandmama; granny-grannie; nan-nany, nana; daughter-daughtie; son-sonny; aunt-auntie, aunty and so on.
III. The reasons of the cultural difference between English and Chinese kinship terms
English and Chinese address forms originated from two different civilization traditions that have their own evolving history. It is not strange that there are many differences between the two. The main reasons for cultural differences lie in the family structures, history background, source and so on.
A. Different family structures
Many cultural differences exist in family structures and values. On one hand,, it’s well- known that ancient China was a feudal agricultural country. People lived on tilling the land and settled in those places with rich soil. In this case, self-supporting natural economy gradually took shape. However, people had to labor together and had a collective life owing to the low productivity. So, they lived together and formed an extended family, gradually, the dominant type of family is extended family. An extended family means a family is made up of two or more adult generations, and these generations of the family sharing a common household and economic resource. Therefore, there are complex relations between family members. In addition, in China, the position in the family hierarchy is distinguished clearly. It has a strict distinction between blood relative and affined relative, clan and non-clan, and also personal status, right, obligation, behavior, therefore, in China, a detailed and clear division in kinship terms is necessary. According to generation, age and sex, people were required to address and distinguish different family members.
On the other hand, in the west, there is no extended family, but a nuclear family. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution period, manpower in Anglo-American countries was no longer the important factor in the process of working. Therefore, an increasing number of nuclear families began to form and played a leading role in the current society. A nuclear family means a family consisting of parents and their unmarried children, and they live far away from other relatives. Generally speaking, a nuclear family has very few members, only parents and offspring. In western countries, because people usually hold the view that they should live a independent life, they are willing not to live with their parents after they get married, they believe in self-reliance and freedom. Furthermore, aged people prefer to live in the nursery home rather than live with their children. As a result, the parents and their children also have their own families, which can avoid conflicts between parents and children brought about by the generation gap. So the nuclear family is simpler. It is no wonder that the English kinship terms is more simple than Chinese.
B. Different historical background
As we all know, feudal patriarchal society controlled China for two thousand years, influenced by the moral and ethical concepts; Chinese must chose suitable terms to address others according to the rank and identity. In addition, Chinese people value the close family relationship and prefer living together with or near their families. This is greatly influenced by China's great teacher and philosopher Confucius, who educated his people not to study or work far away from home while their parents were still alive. This concept has since become one of the traditions of Chinese culture. Because of this concept of close family ties, Chinese families are usually very large. Since people prefer living with or near their families, family members encounter each other frequently in daily routine；therefore, it is convenient for them to keep those precise kinship terms. It is no doubt that the patriarchal clan system produced a great impact on Chinese culture, including the kinship term system.
On the contrary, in the west, people think equality is very important. They hold the view that all men are born equal. In western families, all members are in an equal status. Thus, father and mother, husband and wife, son and daughter and the siblings are in the same status respectively. They are prone to address others by names regardless of the rank and identity. This phenomenon expresses intensely their hope of getting rid of differences in social status. Therefore, English kinship terms give expression to equality in personality, especially for addressing relatives on father’s side or mother’s side.
C. Different source
Chinese kinship terms belong to Sudanese kinship system, but English kinship terms are Eskimo kinship system. Sudanese kinship system is descriptive system, which makes a clear distinction between maternal and paternal relatives. It is so highly descriptive and detailed that generally every relative is named by a different kinship term. What’s more, there is an inclination to relatives of paternal side as well as of lineal relationships because of the male people in paternal side and consanguineous relatives having been put more emphasis. Eskimo kinship term system, which is a typical example of classification, puts more emphasis on the nuclear family which of only father, mother, son, daughter, brother and sister. It also ignores the distinction between father’s side and mother’s side, which shows that it is bilateral.
D. Other reasons
From a cultural point of view of origin, the environments of China and Western countries are different, which has made those people choose different methods to adapt to the environment, therefore, different cultures were formed. In West, the development of material changes in production methods, social and political changes in the economic development, but also influence and determine the changes in cultural development. Europe’s geographic structure formats the Western culture the survival of the state of coexistence with the sea, seafaring and the Industrial Revolution developed, so that from the very early development of commercial economy, which created the mankind's oldest commercial civilization. However, China is a traditional agricultural country, after one thousands of years developing, China has developed as an agricultural civilization. So it is different from the European countries
So China and the European countries produced different civilization and culture, and it was reflected by language, especially in kinship terms. Therefore, there are some different points between Chinese and English kinship terms.
IV. Conclusion
So, based on the above statements, kinship term, an indispensable part of verbal communication, is clearly highlighted in address system of a language. Although English and Chinese languages share a few semantic constants in common, however, kinship terms of these two languages can not be fully translated equivalently. In this paper, the authors illustrate the similarities differences between English an d Chinese kinship terms and reveal the causes it results from. In contrast: English address forms are less complicated than Chinese address forms, with Chinese kinship terms, it will help us better understand English kinship system and their cultures, which will also help us improve cross-cultural communication and thus conduct the further studies in this field.
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