Ali Pak a ,*,Farhad Majd b

a Sharif University of Technology,Tehran,Iran b

SPI Consulting Company,Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Available online xxx

a b s t r a c t

Free Trade Zones (FTZs)around the world offer special advantages to investors and facilitate import/export of goods in order to boost the regional economy.Integrated coastal management in these areas faces special challenges in addition to what ordinary ICZMs usually encounter.For a successful ICZM plan,the very strong business orientation in FTZs has to be taken into account,while other important aspects such as environmental,social,and cultural issues should not be overlooked.The problem becomes more dif ficult where the free zone is situated in sensitive and valuable environmental circumstances.

Kish Island,a free trade zone in the Persian Gulf region,has recently been the focus of a major ICZM study.In order to address the different needs of various stakeholders in the island,four strategic management plans are prepared.The investigations carried out in the course of this study indicated that the required management plans for this free trade zone should be provided with a spatial-plan-oriented approach,otherwise the integration can hardly be achieved and implemented.

This article describes Kish FTZ characteristics and problems that required ICZM initiatives,the methodology for ICZM study,the preparation and implementation of strategic management plans considering the free zone obligations,and the need for a spatial umbrella plan to facilitate the integration among different plans in the implementation process.

Ó2010Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.

1.Introduction

The world ’s coastal zone forms a long narrow boundary between land and ocean that is highly valued by human societies.Although coastal zone is relatively small,it is a heterogeneous,dynamic,highly productive,and sensitive area of the earth ’s surface.Coastal zones occupy less than 15%of the earth ’s land surface,yet accommodate around 37%of the world population in a band of 100km (estimated at 2002),and roughly 50%in a 200km range (Burbridge,2004).With three quarters of the world pop-ulation expected to reside in the coastal zone by 2025,human activities originating from this small land area will impose an inordinate amount of pressures on the global system.

In addition to pressures that the coastal zones around the globe are experiencing,small islands usually engage with extra problems.The UN conference on Small Islands Developing States (SIDS)has been held to find common solutions for these vulnerable areas.The conference resolution,called Barbados program of action,was the first global endeavor to tackle the problems of these countries (United Nations,1994).Box 1shows the inherent features that lead to small islands special vulnerability (Kaly et al.,2002).

SIDS are increasingly confronted with the classic “contradiction between economic progress and environmental degradation ”.It can be argued that this contradiction is more immediate for small states because of their limited resources and environmental vulnerability.Although maintaining a balance between economy and environment underpins sustainable development,it should be noted that the concept of sustainable development,as applied to other areas,has not gained much success in small islands due to their low level of resiliency against different kinds of natural hazards (Kerr,2005).

Each of the issues mentioned in Box 1,with various degrees of importance,causes dif ficulties in the process of establishment of an integrated coastal management system in the islands.Although the main elements of a good ICZM practice are available based on the past experiences,there are varying levels of progress in putting these elements into practice and creating sustainable outcomes.There are weaknesses that detract from the potential effectiveness of ICZM;examples include (Kerr,2005):

1.Low levels of involvement of the Private Sector in ICZM processes;

2.Weak integration of spatial,economic,and environmental planning between the terrestrial and marine components;

3.Lack of tools for effective implementation of coastal plans;

*Corresponding author.

E-mail addresses:pak@sharif.edu (A.Pak),majd@sazehpardazi.com (F.

Majd).Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ocean &Coastal Management

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09-5691/$e see front matter Ó2010Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2010.10.033

Ocean &Coastal Management xxx (2010)1e 8

4.Gap between the expertise developed through ICZM initiatives formulated at a local level and acceptance by and support from district or provincial levels of government.The reverse can be true where district or provincial authorities have stronger technical and financial capabilities and local authorities are sometimes weak and not familiar with ICZM concepts and practices;

5.Poor cooperation and weak coordination between sectoral agencies that can inhibit vertical and horizontal integration of policies,plans,and management strategies affecting coastal areas;

6.Lack of understanding of natural and man-induced hazards in coastal areas and how these might increase as a result of global change.Free Trade Zones (FTZs)around the world have special charac-teristics.They offer advantages of free import/export of goods that attracts the investors and boost the regional economy.For FTZs having good infrastructures such as ports,airports,highways,and communications is of prime importance.Application of ICZM concepts and methods in FTZs requires a good deal of sophistication.In FTZs,ICZM not only is responsible for nature conservation,minimization of the con flicts among the stakeholders,and harmo-nizing the terrestrial and marine activities,it should also integrate spatial and economic development plannings (Kerr,2005).

Kish,an island in the Persian Gulf region,suffers from a number of issues which are mainly environmental.These problems have markedly emerged in recent years due to lack of coherent policies and consistent management.Kish Free Trade Zone authorities have recently initiated ICZM study expecting to witness a declining trend in the existing problems.

In this paper,after describing the general characteristics of Kish Island,the necessities that rendered to ICM initiative in this island and its objectives will be discussed.The methodology of ICZM studies and the procedure for preparation and implementation of the strategic plans for Kish free trade zone ICZM will be explained.Then the spatial planning approach that was considered to address the contradictory issues that the island is currently facing will be discussed.Finally,the conclusions that can be drawn from this study will be presented.2.Kish Island characteristics

Kish is a small island at the north of Persian Gulf region with about 91km 2surface area and 35km perimeter.It is a relatively flat coral island with a maximum height of 45m above the sea level.The island is located 18km south of the mainland with a distance of 250km west of the strategic strait of Hurmoz (Fig.1).Hurmoz strait

is the bottle neck of the oil stream from the huge oil and gas reserves of the Persian Gulf region towards the rest of the world.The number of the vessels that crossed this strait in 2006has exceeded 15,000ships carrying around 45%of the oil/gas world consumption.This large figure of the seaborne transportation is a basic threat to the marine environment due to the considerable volume of pollution.

Persian Gulf is a closed body of water with an average depth of 65m,which connects its littoral states to open seas solely through the Hurmoz strait.It has a unique hydraulic regime.It has been estimated that the water of this Gulf can be changed once in a 40-years time period.This is because its inlets and outlet are very small comparing with the volume of water that it normally contains.Occurrence of two wars in this strategic region during the last decades and the amount of pollutants that were either poured or dumped into the sea during the wars,as well as the oil tankers that have been drown in the sea,have caused severe harms to Persian Gulf environment.In order to restore the situation,the Persian Gulf littoral states have organized a joint effort by estab-lishing an organization called ROPME (Regional Organization for Protection of Marine Environment)that was formed after 1992Kuwait convention (http://www.ropme.com/).

Although Persian Gulf has suffered from two major wars in the last decades,the marine environmental problems have mostly occurred along the southern and western borders,and the Northern coastlines do not seem to bear the burden of an envi-ronmental disaster as it was previously expected.The coastlines of Kish Island are no exception and its beautiful marine nature and attracting beaches,that are unique in the Persian Gulf region,did not suffer much from the past incidents.Kish Island was declared a Free Trade Zone by the government at 19.

Kish population in 1998was 16,600which reached to 22,000in 2003,showing a 5%annual increase.This rapid immigration rate has mostly been due to very good employment opportunities that were the result of the free trade policies of the central government in order to enhance the regional economy and reducing the coun-try ’s high unemployment rate.A recent study has estimated that Kish population will reach 85,500at the year 2025(Drees and Sommer,2005).

Kish is the destination of around 700,000domestic tourists every year that come to the island for spending their vacations.Although only 6months of the year the weather permits outdoor activities such as sports and recreation,the retailers and other service providers have been successful in attracting tourists even during the hot months of summer.Kish has a warm and humid weather during spring and summer,and a mild and pleasant weather during fall and winter.Its average maximum monthly temperature is 33.9 C and the average minimum monthly temperature is 18.6 C.Kish has several shopping malls,a multitude of luxurious hotels,recreation centers,and sea-sport clubs.Sight-seeing and cycling are popular activities at the coastal areas due to good wealth of natural land-scapes.At the terrestrial side,the habitat for 120different types of birds,animals,and also unique types of sea-turtles,attract many people.At the marine side,corals,sponges,and marvelous types of reef fish provide an excellent opportunity for ecotourism and activities such as scuba diving (SPI,2008a ).

In Kish the proportion of the active work-force to the whole population is 70%,while the same figure for the mainland does not exceed 37%.Table 1shows the distribution of the active work-force for different activities in Kish Island.

Kish has a small economy;but the authorities are planning for a stronger economy in the near future.At the same time,Kish is attractive because it is close to the south Pars gas field which is the second largest gas reserve in the world.This gas field is a common reserve from which two countries of Qatar and Iran are

both

A.Pak,F.Majd /Ocean &Coastal Management xxx (2010)1e 8

2

Fig.1.Location of Kish Island in Persian Gulf.

bene fiting.Due to this proximity,some gas fields have recently been discovered around Kish Island.Although oil/gas development activities have not yet started in Kish,the pressure is mounting on the island ’s authorities for issuing the required permissions to oil/gas companies to start the work.

Kish Island is governed by Kish Free Zone Organization (KFZO).The managing director of KFZO is selected by the country ’s free trade zones higher council (FTZHC)which operates under supervision of the country ’s vice-president.Although KFZO should observe the country ’s general laws and regulations,it is almost autonomous inside the island territories,and all the authorities and responsi-bilities of the central government have been transferred to KFZO.3.ICZM study in Kish FTZ

3.1.Need for integrated coastal management in Kish Island

Problems that Kish Island is currently facing have shown a rising trend in recent years.Problems originate from different natures.Whilst most of the problems are somehow related to the envi-ronmental issues,problems regarding legislation,land-use,and tourism are also very important.Box 2contains list of the problems (SPI,2008b ).

KFZO started the integrated coastal management study at 2006.The main objectives of this initiative were making balance among the existing contradictory needs for development,minimizing the con flicts,alleviating the pressures that are exerted on the island ’s environment,and paving the way for future sustainable manage-ment.A ten-year time frame was envisaged for this ICZM plan.This ICZM effort is a consequence of Iran ’s national ICZM study that started at 2003(SPI,2003;Pak and Farajzadeh,2007).

Integrated coastal management in Kish FTZs is in fluenced by advantages or disadvantages mentioned below (Box 3).

The methodology for providing Kish ICZM plan contains prep-aration and implementation of four interconnected (yet relatively independent)strategic management plans that are explained in Section 3.2below.The general methodology of the studies is depicted in Fig.2.

3.2.Strategic management plans for Kish FTZ

To achieve the ICZM goals the following four strategic plans were prepared:

1)Environmental Management Plan 2)Shoreline Management Plan

3)Monitoring and Evaluation Plan 4)Desired Land-use Plan

The first management plan is expected to conserve the terres-trial and marine ecosystems (e.g.,corals,reef fish,turtles,etc.),restore the damaged habitats,and provide the required control measures to preserve natural resources.

The second management plan basically pertains to the engi-neering measures that should be applied by the authorities to

Table 1

Importance of different human activities in Kish Island.Activity

Work e force %GDP %Agriculture 0.10.03Fisheries 1.620.16Mining 0.34e Industry 8.04 5.49Energy

2.42 6.35Construction 18.82 2.53Retail

24.2729.11Hotel &restaurant

8.997.71Transportation and communication 8.50 6.15Dealership 2.14 2.36Renting

5.091

6.33Public works 5.2419.66Education

2.630.50Health and social welfare 0.700.87Other 10.6 2.75Total

99.54

100

A.Pak,F.Majd /Ocean &Coastal Management xxx (2010)1e 8

4

protect the shoreline from undesirable erosion/accretion of the sediments and also to build structures that are required against coastal flooding.

The third plan is intended to serve the need for measurement and recording the basic physical/chemical/biological indicators at the coastal areas and monitoring the changes and trends that may threat island ’s environment and inhabitants.This plan also helps the authorities to evaluate the effectiveness of different plans and projects that are carried out in the framework of integrated coastal management and examine the level of success of ICZM.

The last plan is considered to be a key management plan for Kish FTZ whose necessity and effectiveness will be discussed in Section 3.3.3.2.1.Environmental management plan (EMP)

Preparation of an Environmental Management Plan requires a deep understanding of the existing situation and identi fication of current and future problems.The ecological and human environments have been thoroughly studied by field operations and desk studies and the results have been loaded in a comprehensive GIS database.Based on the obtained results,the following plans have been provided:-Management plan for protection of sensitive ecological regions

-Management plan for rehabilitation of destructed habitats -Management plan for solid waste recycling/disposal -Management plan for liquid waste/sewage disposal -Management plan for air pollution

In preparation of the environmental management plan the ecological capacity of the terrestrial and marine areas have been studied in order to determine the amount of pressure that each zone can bear from different human activities.One of the major outcomes of the environmental management plan was allocation of an area in the south-east of the island for a new “National Park ”due to its unique and invaluable natural resources.

Because of very sensitive and vulnerable environment of Kish Island,implementation of Environmental Management Plan can prevent further destruction of marine and terrestrial habitats.Starting of EMP can be even more important for human envi-ronment because the groundwater system in the island has already been contaminated and management of municipal solid waste (MSW)across the island has become a major issue for Kish authorities.In the light of the EMP,site selection for a new MSW land fill has been carried out and the design of land fill has started.

Identification

phase

Implementation

phase

Planning phase

Fig.2.Kish ICZM study and implementation procedure.

A.Pak,F.Majd /Ocean &Coastal Management xxx (2010)1e 85

Generally,common technical measures for protecting the shoreline against sea hazards(e.g.sea-water-level rise,tsunamis, hurricanes,etc.)include(Frohle and Kohlhase,2004):

beach nourishment,

groinfields,

offshore breakwaters,

artificial reefs,

submerged offshore breakwaters.

From the terrestrial point of view,in small islands there is a different rate of loss of water and sediment due to the small size of water catchment.Usually a great deal of threats to coastal areas can be attributed to unregulated and poorly controlled land-based activities.Therefore,management plans for protection of coasts of the small islands should be integrated with spatial plans of land-based activities(Caledo et al.,2007).

In the course of preparation of shoreline management plan, winds,waves,currents,tides,surges,and also long-shore and cross-shore sedimentation regimes around Kish Island were carefully studied.Then based on the obtained results,coastal cells and sub-cells have been identified and proper management options have been proposed.

The conducted studies showed that35km long shoreline of the island is fairly stable and no major hazard is foreseen in this regard. For example,less than5%of the coastal areas are found to be prone toflooding when a heavy storm with a25-years return period occurs.Based on the proposed SMP guidelines,Kish authorities have started a project for protecting and regulating the beach with emphasis on creating green areas and landscapes to enhance ecotourism around the island.The outcome of this plan has proved to be satisfactory.

3.2.3.Monitoring and evaluation plan(MEP)

Preparation of this management plan had a two-fold objective. First,for the developing countries where the necessary long-term data and statistics for scientific studies are hardly available,the MEP provides a rational framework and timetable for the authori-ties to establish data recording and monitoring stations for gath-ering necessary physical,chemical,biological,ecological,and engineering data.Secondly,evaluating the level of success of ICZM plan(that requires recognizing the constraints and pitfalls and employing appropriate means to modify future actions related to ICM plan)can be carried out using the monitoring and evaluation plan.

It is important to note that the current state of practice in ICM plans indicates that measuring the success of ICZM initiatives is by no means easy nor is necessarily a fully scientific and objective process.The nature of ICZM,challenges the standard approaches of project control and management.The majority of evaluation methods and criteria used in assessing ICZM initiatives are designed to measure‘outputs’rather than‘outcomes’(Humphrey and Burbridge,1998;Olsen et al.,1998).Generally,methodologies that have been employed to measure success of ICZM are as follows (Kerr,2005):

1)PSR Framework

2)Logical Framework Analysis(LFA)

3)Analysis of Stakeholder Perceptions

Thefirst is the Pressure-State-Response(PSR),which is designed to help in reporting on national sustainability with respect to Agenda21of Rio declaration(1992).The second is LFA that has typically been designed to look at projects with clearly defined outputs rather than outcomes i.e.the strength of the development planning and management processes.The third approach is to look at stakeholder perceptions of and satisfaction with a project or a program,and the outcomes.

For Kish Monitoring and Evaluation Plan,first a range of proper indicators for different monitoring purposes were identified.Then, a plan for setting up the monitoring stations and a timetable for measurement of each indicator have been proposed.Also,actions that should be taken for evaluating the success of ICZM plans have been discussed.

It should be noted that implementation of MEP requires suffi-cient budget for establishment of monitoring stations,employing the qualified personnel,and providing a computerized data collection and data management system.A wide range of data types should be provided and stored based on monitoring physical, chemical,biological,economical,and social indicators in appro-priate time intervals and suitable frequencies.Hence,prioritiza-tions for data recordings were identified and proposed in MEP and the required budget was estimated for short,medium,and long terms implementation periods.Although MEP has not been started at the time of preparation of this article,it is anticipated that the short term implementation plan is started upon providing the budget.

3.3.Spatial planning approach for integration

A number of tools and techniques already exist and are available for implementation within an integrated coastal zone management framework.Some of the more frequently used management tech-niques include:

Zonation:The coastal area is divided into geographical zones for management purposes.The zone can be determined based on distances,height above sea level,degree of risk to storm surges,etc.

Set-Back Lines and Exclusionary Zones:A line along the shore is delineated beyond which construction of buildings is pro-hibited,usually to keep structures out of the areas where coastal erosion can cause damage or where there may be environmentally sensitive zones.

Protected Areas:Areas of land or water that have been specially designated to protect some aspect offlora,fauna,habitat or ecosystem,usually for the protection of rare and endangered species.

Special Area Planning:Where it is important to plan and manage an area as an entire unit.

Acquisition,Easement,and Development Rights:Method through which the government is able to control the use of particular pieces of coastal land through purchase.

Coastal Permits:Law enacted that requires anyone who wishes to undertake an activity in the coastal zone to obtain a permit from the appropriate agency.

Most of the above mentioned techniques have been used in Kish free trade zone ICZM plan.The strong business orientation in FTZs such as Kish Island necessitates that the rules and regulations that originate from ICZM planningfind realistic grounds to be observed by various stakeholders.

In Kish FTZ the valuable coastal land should be wisely managed and allocated to different beneficiaries in order to establish a balance among different activities.This allocation should observe the environmental values and preserve the sensitive habitats in the islands’terrestrial and marine zones.Besides,lack of law or inadequate law enforcement in the island,indicates that spatial planning can be very instrumental in creating a coherent and

A.Pak,F.Majd/Ocean&Coastal Management xxx(2010)1e8 6

sustainable management.A proper land-use plan can serve as a tool for a harmonious and target-oriented management that paves the way for establishment of integration among different activities in the island.

In Kish Island the results obtained from four different study disciplines,namely:morphology,hydrodynamics,ecology,and existing land-use,have been used for preparation of the desired land-use plan,.Thematic studies were carried out and the results were gathered in a geographical information database.Box4shows the maps and information that were used.

General categories of land-uses in Kish coastal area are tourism, ecotourism,sea sports,aquaculture,public services,residential,and infrastructure.Thefinal land-use plan for Kish FTZ is shown in Fig.3.

The priorities in establishment of different activities in coastal areas have been determined in the course of Kish ICZM studies. Based on this prioritization,the investors’applications are assessed and if the type of activity is consistent with the spatial plan priorities, the requested permit will be issued.In cases the proposed activity does not match with the desired Land-use plan,for instance if some contradictions with nearby activities are expected or the effects associated with the proposed activity on the environment are not clearly known,the authorities ask for an Environmental Impact Assessment(EIA)report.Issuance of the permit,therefore,will remain pending until the EIA report is submitted and evaluated.

The preliminary results of the provided spatial plan have been very promising.The proposed spatial plan not only helps the investors to choose the place thatfits best to their need and type of activity,but also helps the authorities to put their permit-issuance on afirm ground.The provided Land-Use Plan(LUP)has been used in the process of permit-issuance and/or zonation of the coastal land for better plannings and management.

3.4.Lessons learned from Kish ICZM

Olsen et al.(1997)have argued that the fundamental challenge of coastal management is one of governance.However,it is important to note that setting up an administration or establishing an organization does not necessarily guarantee the success of an ICZM plan.The implementation is the most crucial phase,since the global experiences have shown that ICZM faces real challenges when it hits the ground.

It was discussed that the vulnerability and limited resources of small islands cause different kinds of problems in these areas that should be addressed properly in ICM initiatives.Despite the fact

Box4

Maps and information used in land-use planning.

Coastal morphology:

1)Erosion and sedimentation

zoning Map

2)Sea-bottom sediment typology

map

3)Sea-bottom terrain and slope

map

4)Landforms along the beach Coastal hydrodynamics:

1)Coastalflooding map

2)Sea wave height zonation

map

3)Sea-current speed zonation

map

4)Wave-energy zonation map

Ecology and environment:

1)Corals distribution map

2)Turtle habitats map

3)Birds habitats map

4)Sea-grass zonation map Existing land-use:

1)Existing land-use map

2)Proposed(future)land-use

map

3)Real estate(ownership)

map

Fig.3.Kish FTZ land-use Plan.

A.Pak,F.Majd/Ocean&Coastal Management xxx(2010)1e87that in recent ICM attempts in some countries a less restrictive practice is recommended for implementation of management plans in the coastal zones(Anker et al.,2004),it was found here that due to strong economical concerns that exist in free trade zones,taking a spatial planning approach plays an important role in achieving the goals and objectives of ICZM.

The role of‘spatial planning’within ICZM strongly depends on the fundamental understanding of ICZM either as a planning and decision-making tool,or a holistic philosophy of thought(Kannen et al.,2004).Although spatial planning has already been of concern in some ICZM plans(e.g.,German National ICZM plan (Geek et al.,2004)),but employing spatial plan for implementing other required strategic plans for sustainable management in the coastal zone of FTZ does not seem to gain the attention that it deserves.It should be emphasized,however,that solely enforcing a desired land-use plan to be implemented,cannot necessarily assure the authorities for sustainable development.In other words, spatial planning should not be considered as a goal but a mean for better integration.

The provided spatial plan has helped ICZM by enabling the authorities to observe the priorities in issuing the permits for various activities and to settle down the conflicts that arise in allocating coastal lands among different stakeholders(private investors,coastal authorities,and Department of the Environ-ment).It seems that the spatial umbrella plan can pave the way for implementation of other strategic plans and converges various activities towards a sustainable and harmonized development.

4.Concluding remarks

Integrated coastal management in Kish Island,a free trade zone, has been described in this paper.The methodology of the study and the management plans that deemed necessary for reducing the level of pressure that is mounting on the island have been explained.For Kish Island,the studies indicated that implementa-tion of four strategic plans:environmental management plan, shoreline management plan,monitoring and evaluation plan,and desired land-use plan are necessary for an integrated coastal zone management.

Vulnerability and low level of resiliency of small islands on one hand,and necessities of FTZs due to investors’expectations on the other,cause the ICM plans in these areas particularly difficult.

While the level of success of Kish ICZM initiative should be monitored in the years to come,the need for a spatial-planning-oriented approach in ICM plans in free trade zones can be emphasized.Acknowledgement

Authors wish to thank Kish Free Zone Organization(KFZO)and Sazeh Pardazi Iran(SPI)consulting engineers for their support and granting permission for preparing this paper.The efforts of Ms. Maryam Mohammadi from KFZO in the course of Kish ICZM study are gratefully acknowledged.

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