Traditionally, synonyms are defined as words of the same part of speech conveying the same notion but differing either in shades (elements) of meaning or in stylistic characteristics (I.V. Arnold, 1973). Quite frequently synonyms belong to the same part of speech, though sometimes the synonymic row is formed by words of different word-classes, cf., ridiculous, absurd, inane; bed, sleeping, sleep time, to sleep.
In terms of componential analysis synonyms may be defined as words with the same denotation but differing in connotations: to begin – to start – to – commence (stylistic differences), to put – to place – to lay – to set – to deposit (differences in denotation), to tremble – to shiver - to shudder (denotation differences), to like – to adore – to love (differences in emotive connotations), to look – to stare – to gaze – to glance – to peep (differences in denotations and connotations).
In a great number of cases the semantic difference between two or more synonyms is supported by the difference in their valence, syntactical or lexical. Valence denotes the ability of a word to become an element of a word-combination: to tremble - to shiver (from cold) - to shudder (from disgust); to answer (a question) – to reply to (a question); to finish (school) – to graduate from (University); to offer (a concrete thing) – to suggest (an idea).
Each synonymic group has a dominant element. The synonymic dominant is the most general term potentially containing the specific features rendered by all the other members of the group. The synonymic dominant has the following characteristic features:
1. high frequency of usage;
2. broad combinability, i.e., an ability of a word to be used in combinations with various classes of words;
3. broad general meaning;
4. lack of connotations, cf., in the synonymic sets to leave – to depart – to retire – to clear out and to ask – to inquire – to question – to interrogate the verbs to leave and to ask are regarded as the synonymic dominants.
V. Vinogradov (1953) established the following classification of synonyms:
1.ideographic,
2.stylistic,
3.ideographic-stylistic,
4.contextual, and
5.absolute (total) synonyms.
Ideographic synonyms are words conveying the same notion but differing in denotations, cf.:
a piece – a lump – a slice,
to tremble – to shiver – to shudder,
anger – fury.
Stylistic synonyms are words conveying the same notion but differing in stylistic connotations, cf.:
to try – to endeavor (bookish),
to see – to behold (archaic),
sky – heaven (poetic),
a horse – a steed (poetic).
Ideographic-stylistic synonyms differ in semantics, emotional coloring and stylistic references: to say – to pronounce, a head – an onion, money – cabbage.
Contextual synonyms are similar in meaning only under some specific conditions: the words to bear, to stand, to suffer are synonyms only when used in the negative form: can’t stand it – can’t suffer it – can’t bear it. Otherwise, all these verbs are semantically different.
Absolute (total) synonyms are words coinciding in their meanings and in stylistic characteristics. Absolute synonyms are usually technical and scientific terms. The vocabulary system tends to reject one of the absolute synonyms or to develop differentiation characteristics in one of them: a noun – a substantive, an inflection – an ending, an oculist – an eye-specialist.
Synonyms are very important expressive means of a language. They are the basis of language culture: to speak correctly and well one must know a lot of synonyms and differences between them.
The English language is characterized by a great amount of synonyms in its vocabulary. It was a result of a very intensive process of borrowing new words from different languages in previous centuries. Quite a number of words in a synonymic set are usually of Latin or French origin, cf.:
beautiful (Fr) – fair (E),
to begin (E) – to commence (Fr) – to initiate (Lat).
Synonyms differ in various ways because they may belong to different spheres, such as:
1. regional dialects or variants of the English language, as in American and British English: elevator - lift, sidewalk – pavement, sweets – candy, cookie – biscuit, apartment – flat, butty – sandwich, heartsome – cheering, snap – packed lunch;
2. styles or levels of formality: clime – scend (bookish);
3. technical vocabulary or jargon: cordial – heart, optic – eye, lexeme – word, orthography – spelling, phoneme – sound;
4. connotations: to love – to adore;
5. euphemistic expressions: to die – to pass away – to snuff it; to kill – to liquidate – to do it. Colloquial synonyms such as snuff it and do it are called “dysphemisms”.
Synonymic words that are used to avoid direct designation of unpleasant, improper or offensive things are called euphemisms. Dysphemisms are offensive words and expressions that are substituted for inoffensive words.
Appearance of euphemisms is caused by social and religious taboos connected with death, sacred beings, devil, diseases, pregnancy and other “delicate” references.
The Christian religion created some word taboos for the use of:
1. the God and similar ideas: Lord; the Maker; Goodness! Good Lord! By Heavens! for the love of Mike; for Peter’s sake;
2. the devil: the Prince of darkness, the Black one, Old Nick;
3. the death and its derivatives: to depart this life, to be taken, to go to a better world, to go West; lost, deceased, departed, etc.
Social taboos are frequent in many delicate spheres of life. The word lavatory produced a number of euphemisms and dysphemisms: W.C., gentlemen’s room, ladies’ room; to wash one’s hands; this is it; where is what-do-you-call-it? The word to kill is avoided in favor of to do it, to remove, to destroy, to take for a ride, to put on the spot, to liquidate, to vaporize, etc.
An adjective drunk is often substituted by merry, tipsy, fresh, full, drunk as a Lord, soaked, stewed, boiled, pickled, canned, half-seas-over, intoxicated, etc.
Liar is euphemistically described as untruthful. A stupid man is often described as not exactly brilliant; naked – in one’s birthday shirt; sweat is substituted by perspiration, etc.
So, learned and scientific terms, and words with the negative prefix un- are used euphemistically, while phraseological units, slang, colloquial words and phrases and abbreviations are used dysphemistically.
image
concept
Idea notion
mental representation
signify
i.e., red apples
Synonyms Note
Referent object, i.e.,
Word
( oral, written)
i.e., apple
Connotation
Word meanings:
(1) denotation (本義; 字面意義) : obligatory
(2) connotation (涵義; 伴隨義; 隱涵意義)
Denotation
(a) stylistic connotation
i.e., slang
money is cabbage
(b) emotive connotation
i.e., kittle
(c) intensive connotation (有程度上的加強)
i.e., large→ huge→ enormous
Synonyms Test 1
1. What are synonyms?
Traditionally, synonyms are defined as words of the same part of speech conveying the same notion but differing either in shades (elements) of meaning or in stylistic characteristics (I.V. Arnold, 1973). Quite frequently synonyms belong to the same part of speech, though sometimes the synonymic row is formed by words of different word-classes, cf., ridiculous, absurd, inane; bed, sleeping, sleep time, to sleep.
2. What is a synonymic dominant? What are its characteristics?
Each synonymic group has a dominant element. The synonymic dominant is the most general term potentially containing the specific features rendered by all the other members of the group. The synonymic dominant has the following characteristic features:
(a) high frequency of usage;
(b) broad combinability, i.e., an ability of a word to be used in combinations with various classes of words;
(c) broad general meaning;
(d) lack of connotations, cf., in the synonymic sets to leave – to depart – to retire – to clear out and to ask – to inquire – to question – to interrogate the verbs to leave and to ask are regarded as the synonymic dominants.
3. What is denotation and what is connotation? What is obligatory?
(a) Denotation-words with its original meaning and it is obligatory.
(b) Connotation-words with some other special meaning
4. What are the types of synonyms according to Vinogradov?
V. Vinogradov (1953) established the following classification of synonyms:
(a ) Ideographic synonyms are words conveying the same notion but differing in denotations, cf.:
a piece – a lump – a slice, to tremble – to shiver – to shudder, anger – fury.
(b) Stylistic synonyms are words conveying the same notion but differing in stylistic connotations, cf.: to try – to endeavor (bookish), to see – to behold (archaic), sky – heaven (poetic), a horse – a steed (poetic).
(c) Ideographic-stylistic synonyms differ in semantics, emotional coloring and stylistic references: to say – to pronounce, a head – an onion, money – cabbage.
(d) Contextual synonyms are similar in meaning only under some specific conditions: the words to bear, to stand, to suffer are synonyms only when used in the negative form: can’t stand it – can’t suffer it – can’t bear it. Otherwise, all these verbs are semantically different.
(e) Absolute (total) synonyms are words coinciding in their meanings and in stylistic characteristics. Absolute synonyms are usually technical and scientific terms. The vocabulary system tends to reject one of the absolute synonyms or to develop differentiation characteristics in one of them: a noun – a substantive, an inflection – an ending, an oculist – an eye-specialist.
5. What is the major source of synonyms in English?
Quite a number of words in a synonymic set are usually of Latin or French origin, cf.:
beautiful (Fr) – fair (E),
to begin (E) – to commence (Fr) – to initiate (Lat).
6. What are euphemisms? What are their major types?
(1) Synonymic words that are used to avoid direct designation of unpleasant, improper or offensive things are called euphemisms.
(2) Appearance of euphemisms is caused by social and religious taboos connected with death, sacred beings, devil, diseases, pregnancy and other “delicate” references.
( 補充：Synonymic words that are used to avoid direct designation of unpleasant, improper or offensive things are called euphemisms (婉轉詞: 為了不讓要表達的詞彙語氣太強烈而衍生出來。運用了和原本要表達的辭彙的相近音或是相近的意像，造出另一個字或詞來表達相近的意思而帶有較輕微的語氣). Dysphemisms (惡俗詞: 用冒犯或詆譭性的字詞取代普通詞。大部分刻意的惡意咒罵都是惡俗詞。) )
7. Give as many synonyms for the following words as you can:
To look: to gaze/ to see/ to watch/ to glace/ to stare/ observe/ to glimpse/ glare /blink/ to peep (slang)
To begin: to start/ to commence/ to take off/ to initiate/ to rise / to go ahead/ to fire away/
to kick off
big: large/ huge/ enormous/ gigantic/ great/ grand/ vast/ colossal /immense/ giant/massive/ tremendous
angry: irate/ enrage/ incensed/ furious / wrathful/ ireful/ infuriated
8. Define the following things:( http:// dictionary/com)
i differences in the meanings of the synonyms below; (把下面的字義都找出來)
ii kinds of synonyms; (判斷Ideographic, stylistic, ideographic-stylistic哪一種)
iii the synonymic dominant of the set. (最常用的字)
(1) pretty-handsome-beautiful- canny-pleasant-cute-foxy-gorgeous
i. pretty: attractive lovely, good-looking
handsome: pretty in a muscular way
beautiful: aesthetically pleasant
canny: (pleasant)
pleasant : satisfying to criteria of beauty
cute : American English
foxy : (slang, negative)
gorgeous: very beautiful, elegant
ii. ideographic- stylistic synonyms
iii. pleasant
(2) fear- terror –horror- fright
i. fear: distressing emotion
terror: intense, sharp, overmastering fear
horror: an overwhelming and painful feelings
fright: sudden and extreme fear
ii. (a) ideographic synonyms
(b) stylistic synonyms :fear→ terror →horror-→fright: intensification (害怕的程度輕→重)
iii. fear
(3) a piece-a lump- a slice
i. a piece: a part of anything, fragment
a lump: a small sharpless mass
a slice: a thin broad piece cut from something
ii. ideographic synonyms
iii. piece
(4) to like- to love- to admire- to adore- to worship-to relish- to enjoy
i. to like: take pleasure in
to love: to have affection
to admire: to feel or express admiration
to adore: to like or admire very much
to worship: to participate in religious rites
to relish: take pleasure in
to enjoy: to experience with joy
ii. (a) ideographic synonyms
(b) stylistic synonyms: to like→ to love→ to admire→ to adore→ to worship
→ to relish→ to enjoy (喜歡的程度輕→重)
iii. like下载本文
