I.翻译考试的内容与考生状况分析 博士研究生英语入学考试中的翻译项目旨在通过翻译测试考生正确理解英文原文的能力及汉语的表达能力，以及汉语的翻译能力，也考查考生广博的背景知识，又检测考生的语言基础知识。英译汉是通过阅读一篇难度适中的短文（题材不限，长度约400字上下），翻译其中较为复杂的4个句子，每题5分，满分为20分；每题划分为若干个给分段，每一分段的分值为0.5或1。对考生的要求是对原文理解正确，译文表达清楚准确，对汉语不作过高要求。汉译英是通过阅读一篇难度适中的短文（题材不限，长度约340字上下），翻译全文。本部分的重点在于翻译的准确、完整和通顺。英译汉和汉译英，分值40分，被放到和阅读理解一样重要的位置上。这一部分主要测试考生的阅读理解能力，重点不在汉语的翻译能力上。这里阅读理解能力包括对整篇的理解和对划线部分的理解。
从近几年的考博翻译情况来看，考试成绩都不够理想。满分为40分的考题，多数考生的成绩都在20分上下，不少考生甚至很难保住这部分的分数——这就对总体得分造成了影响。
II. 英译汉命题趋势与考生问题的症结
从近年考博英译汉命题的情况来看，有以下三个明显特点；
（1）从考试题材上看，几乎都是与现代科技相关的内容。
（2）从语法结构来讲，侧重考查若干短语，如动词短语，分词短语（形容词短语），不定式短语以及少量较难的介词短语。此外，语法结构及逻辑关系比较复杂,有时不做些语法分析和逻辑推理就理不出头绪。还有若干代词，如it, they，that, this, one等，它们必须要根据上下文才能确定其词义所指。以及一些较难的从句，如what从句从, 定语句，as从句等等。
（3）从词汇来讲，难度增大了，侧重考查一词多义，一词转义，也就是说，所考词汇，如果照字面直译多半会出差错，必须通过上下文进行词义引伸，理解某一词在具体场合的特定含义，才能做出正确的译文，而死抠词字、句序、语态往往会表达不通顺。
从考生卷面的情况分析，造成翻译败笔的原因主要有以下几点：
(1) 对原文的理解不够。划线句往往是要根据上下文才能理解透彻，而考生由于时间紧张，看到句子便率尔操觚，对原文的主要框架结构、相互指代关系理解不够准确，这样一来译句的准确度也就成问题了。
(2) 考生不懂得英汉句式结构的差异，对翻译技巧方法更是知之甚少，因此在考试中甩不开原文的句式结构，不敢进行必要的词序调整、句序、语序转换，不敢进行词类转换，不会用增词法、减字法之类的基本翻译处理方法。
(3) 中文表达能力有限，不能将对原文理解了的东西随心所欲地用汉语清楚地表达出来，一些考生甚至还出现错别字现象。
III. 考博翻译的做题思路与步骤
1. 粗略阅读原文，搞清作者意图。
用3－5分钟时间把整个文章通读一遍，大致搞清原文的主旨大意，积极调动相关的思维活动，使头脑进入最佳考试状态。阅读只需了解个大意即可，遇到生词一掠而过，千万不要被与所考的五个句子无关的一些生词、短语，甚至人名地名所纠缠住。
2. 理清考题结构，把握句式重心。
在粗读一遍，大致搞清原文的主旨大意的基础上，逐句处理5个句子。读第二遍时，重点则应放在这五个句子上，确定句子的意思。
3. 分清主次关系，注意“左邻右舍”。从它们与全文的关系上，特别是从前后句即它们的中寻找有用的信息，确定代词的确切含义，句子中出现的“超纲词”的词义也很有可能从上下文中搞清楚。
4. 仔细检查译文，确保准确无误。
IV. 翻译总论：中英差异
1、 英语重结构、汉语重语意：
1） 好好学习，天天向上：Work hard and make progress everyday.
） 你不知道谁知道：If you don’t know, who knows!
2、 英语多长句、汉语多短句：（很多同学英语学不好，就是看不懂长句。例如阅读有很多长句、难句，你看不懂。而写作为什么很难取得高分，因为你写的全是短句。）
Now the earth was formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the Spirit of God was hovering over the waters. (Bible) (第一章《创世纪》中的第一句)（25词。《圣经》为了普及，语言都很简单，但也有长句。）
地是空虚混沌，渊面黑暗；神的灵运行在水面上。
3、 英语多从句、汉语多分句：（英语通常从句套从句；汉语没有从句这个概念。）
He could not see the green of the shore now but only the tops of the blue hills that showed white as though they were snow-capped and the clouds that looked like high snow mountains above them. (Ernest Hemingway: The Old Man and the Sea)
他眼下已看不见海岸的那一道绿色了，只看得见那些青山的仿佛积着白雪的山峰，以及山峰上空像是高耸的雪山般的云块。（吴劳译）（3个从句翻译成3个分句）
4、 英语多代词、汉语多名词：（不要老是重复名词，英语写作要避免重复，用代词来代替名词——也是逻辑性的一种体现）（做英译汉的时候，要找到它指代的对象，翻译成名词。）
5、 英语多被动、汉语多主动：
1）常见句型：
（1） It is said that据说
（2） It is believed that人们认为
（3） It is reported that据报道
（4） It is estimated that 据估计
（5） It must be pointed out that必须指出
（6） It must be admitted that 必须承认
（7） It has been found that 实践证明
（8） It is suggested that 有人建议
（9） It is agreed that人们认为
（10） It is imagined that 人们认为
（11） It cannot be denied that 不可否认
（12） It will be seen from this that 由此可知
（13） It should be realized that 必须认识到
（14） It is always stressed that人们总是强调
（15） It is generally considered that 人们普遍认为
（16） It may be said without fear of exaggeration that 可以毫不夸张的说
2） 主被均可：（中文被动用“由”、“被”表示。有些英文句子翻译成中文，这个“被”翻译不翻译都可以；而中文翻译成英文最好把它翻译成被动。）
（1） That book must have been taken away by Wang Fei.
那本书肯定是（被）王飞拿走的。（这个“被”翻不翻都可以。）
（2） In the development of social economy, the culture tradition must be kept. 在社会经济发展过程中，文化传统必须（被）保持。
（3） The economic development is decided to great extent by science and technology.经济发展在很大程度是（由）科学技术决定的。
3） 主译为宾：（英语被动语态的主语常常翻译成中文中的宾语。）
New sources of energy must be found, and this will take time, but it is not likely to result in any situation that will ever restore that sense of cheap and plentiful energy we have had in the past time.
第一句：新的能源必须被找到。——这种翻译明显不是中文，不符合中文表达习惯。应该翻译为：必须找到新的能源。
6、 英语多变化、汉语多重复：
“Man’s Youth”（Thomas Wolfe）：Man’s youth is a wonderful thing: it is so full of anguish and of magic and he never comes to know it as it is, until it has gone from him forever. （使用四次代词it代替名词youth。翻译成中文，还原youth，译作“青春”。）
《青春啊青春》：青春是如此的奇妙，充满着苦痛，也充满着神奇。翩翩少年永远不知青春为何物，直到年华已逝，才如梦初醒。
7、 英语多抽象、汉语多具体：
1） lack of perseverance三天打鱼、两天晒网
2） await with great anxiety望穿秋水
3） with great eagerness 如饥似渴
4） Until such time as mankind has the sense to lower its population to the point where the planet can provide a comfortable support for all, people will have to accept more “unnaturalfood.”直译：直到这一时刻，人类有一种这样的感觉，把人口降低到这样一个点，这个行星可以给人提供舒适的支持，否则人类将不得不接受越来越多的“非自然食物”。
这里面一共有4个比较抽象的表达：sense, point, a comfortable support, “unnatural food”。必须尽量使它具体化：直到这一时刻，人类有一种这样的意识，把人口降低到这样一种程度，这个行星可以给人提供足够的饮食，否则人类将不得不接受越来越多的“人造食品”。
8、 英语多省略、汉语多补充：——汉译英的时候，要进行适当的省略；英译汉的时候要把省略的部分补充上去。
One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy.（省略is。）一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。
英语多前重心、汉语多后重心：（英文的文章第一段提出中心思想；每段的第一句话主题句；而且句子的重点放在最前面。而汉语的中心思想放在文章的最后一段。）我问而且轻轻
简而言之：
表达得体——理解透彻后，接着下一步就是要表达。理解了但表达不出来或是表达是走样了，这都是大问题。在正确理解的前提下，一篇译文质量的好坏，就全看表达如何了。实际上，有不少译文质量的低劣就是表达方面存在问题。
e.g. She asked: “Who do you fear?” Kino searched for a true answer, and at last he said: “Everyone.” And he could feel a shell of hardness drawing over him.
Version 1: 她问：“你怕谁呢？”奇诺寻求一个真实的回答。他终于说：“所有人。”他感到一层硬壳渐渐把他包起来。
Version 2: 她问道：“你怕谁呢？”奇诺思考了一下，想找出他这样做的真正理由。最后他说道：“我怕，什么人都怕。”他觉得自己渐渐被什么包围起来，开始与世隔绝。
不要形式上的忠实——所谓忠实原文，有形式上的忠实和内容上的忠实两种。如果能做到形式和内容都忠实原文，这当然很理想。能否形式上和内容上都忠实原文，不是译者的水平决定高低的，而是由原语(Source Language)和目的语(Target Language)在表达方式上的本质差异所决定的。二者不可兼得的情况下，是牺牲形式而保存内容。这里所说的“牺牲形式”，并不是说不忠实原文的形式，而是要在译语中寻找与内容相契合的形式。
e.g. I had a auto-repairman once.
Version 1: 我过去有位汽车修理师。
Version 2: 我以前认识一位汽车修理师傅。
e.g. I prefer driving to being driven.
Version 1: 我开车比坐车更喜欢。
Version 2: 我喜欢开车，不喜欢坐车。与其开车，我更喜欢坐车
求意似不求形似——在翻译时发现原语(Source Language)和目的语(Target Language)的表达方式不一样，要敢于大胆甩开原文形式，用译语最佳的表现形式把原文的意思表达出来。只要不背原意，在词句、结构、比喻等方面做一些改变是必要的。
e.g. Why don’t you come at three tomorrow afternoon?.
Version 1: 你为什么不明天下午3点来？
Version 2: 你明天下午3点来好吗？
例1汉译英:
北京2008奥运会口号与会徽
会徽说明
申办会徽由奥运五环色构成，形似中国传统民间工艺品的“中国结”，又似一个打太极拳的人形。图案如行云流水，和谐生动，充满运动感，象征世界人民团结、协作、交流、发展，携手共创新世纪；表达奥林匹克更快、更高、更强的体育精神。
Emblem
The emblem resembles a person doing “Taiji”; (Tai Ch’I), symbolizing gracefulness, harmony, vitality and mobility as well as unity, cooperation, exchange and development. It also resembles the shape of a traditional Chinese artifact known as the “China Heart Unit.” The logo was designed by Chen Shaohua, a noted designer in Shenzhen and one of the 13 official emblem designers appointed by BOBICO, and well-known painter Han Meilin, who modified the design by using a calligraphy brush. Kan Tai-Keung, a famous designer in Hong Kong, also contributed to the designing of the emblem.
口 号 说 明
有三千余年建城史的北京，经过改革开放的洗礼，将以崭新的、多姿多彩的面貌进入新世纪，她将以饱满的热情欢迎全世界的体育健儿和各界朋友，共同参与奥运盛会。
历经百年沧桑的现代奥林匹克运动会，在拥有世界人口1/5的中国举办，将使奥林匹克精神得到更广泛的传播，翻开奥林匹克运动的崭新一页。同时，进入新世纪的奥林匹克运动也将以全新的面貌向世界人民展示其特有的魅力。
Motto
New Beijing, Great Olympics
Reform and opening up to the outside world have brought about great changes in Beijing, a city with a 3,000-year history. The city has taken on a completely new look as it enters the new century. It will embrace the athletes and friends from the rest of the world attending the Olympic Games with great enthusiasm.
The great modern Olympic Movement has gone through many changes in the past 100 years. Should the Olympic Games be held in China, the most populous nation in the world, the Olympic spirit will be even further disseminated and a new page will be turned in the Olympic history; and the Olympic Movement will show its unique splendor to the world in the new millennium.
例2英译汉
Chinese eagerly await lunar satellite launch
More than two thirds of the nation want to see the launch of Chang’e I, China’s first lunar orbiter live on TV, according to a survey.
According to the survey by China Youth Daily and www.qq.com, almost the entire nation wants to catch images of the event at some point, with 99 percent of the 10,358 respondents saying they expected to witness the satellite launch and 68.9 percent said they were certain to watch the live broadcast of the launch.
On www.qq.com and www.sina.com, two popular web portals in the country, internet users have contributed some 2,000 poems and 5000 drawings on the theme of Chang'e I.
"The satellite launch means much more than just saying 'hello' to the moon. Maybe in the future we could also send some people to accompany sister 'Chang'e'," said a college student in the survey.
Remarkably, many people expect to visit the moon one day, with 93.4 percent of respondents saying they expected to do so.
Chang'e I is named after Chang'e, a famous character from Chinese mythology. She ascended from earth to live on the moon as a celestial being after drinking an elixir.
The satellite will be launched between Wednesday and Friday, with 6 pm today being the best choice, a spokesman for the China National Space Administration (CNSA) said on Monday. Preparations are almost complete for the launch of the country's first lunar orbiter, according to a spokesman for the Xichang Satellite Launch Center.
一项调查显示，超过三分之二的中国人表示会收看我国首个月球探测器——“嫦娥一号”卫星发射的电视直播实况。
据该项由中国青年报和腾讯网联合开展的调查，几乎所有的中国人都想观看“嫦娥一号”的发射盛况。在10358名受访者中，99%的人称希望亲眼见证“嫦娥奔月”，68.9%的人说他们一定会收看电视直播。
截至目前，腾讯网和新浪网两大门户网站共收集网友创作的有关“嫦娥一号”的诗作约2000篇，画作约5000幅。
一名大学生说：“这次探月行动不仅仅是到月球串个门，和嫦娥姐姐打个招呼这么简单。说不定以后还能派几个人给嫦娥姐姐时不常地做个伴。”
调查发现，很多人（93.4%的受访者）希望有朝一日能到月球上看看。
“嫦娥一号”卫星得名于中国神话传说中家喻户晓的人物“嫦娥”。她吃下长生不老药后化作仙女，从地球升到了月球上。
国家航天局的一位发言人于本周一公布，“嫦娥一号”将于本周三至周五择机发射，今天下午六时是最佳发射时机。西昌卫星发射中心的一位发言人称，发射前的所有准备工作已基本完成。
阅读
时间和分值分配（06真题为例）
290+221+307+433+247=1498
one hour / five passages → 1500 words
12 minutes / one passages → 30-50 words/m
8% / one passages →40% / five passages
70-75% reading coverage → 28 points gain
用技巧性方式提高阅读速度
1）看文章时要有所不为
We invited staff volunteers who had a strong liking for either Coca-Cola Classic（传统型）or Pepsi, Diet（低糖的）Coke, or Diet Pepsi. These were people who thought they'd have no trouble telling their brand from the other brand.
We eventually located 19 regular cola drinkers and 27 diet cola drinkers. Then we fed them four unidentified samples of cola one at a time, regular colas for the one group, diet versions for the other. We asked them to tell us whether each sample was Coke or Pepsi; then we analyzed the records statistically to compare the participants' choices with what mere guess-work could have accomplished.
Getting all four samples right was a tough test, but not too tough, we thought, for people who believed they could recognize their brand. In the end, only 7 out of 19 regular cola drinkers correctly identified their brand of choice in all four trials. The diet-cola drinkers did a little worse-only 7 of 27 identified all four samples correctly.
2）找答案要有方向感
例：
51. In the first paragraph, the writer tells us that statuses can help us ________.
A) determine whether a person is fit for a certain job
B) behave appropriately in relation to other people
C) protect ourselves in unfamiliar situations
D) make friends with other people
52. According to the writer, people often assume different statuses ________.
A) in order to identify themselves with others
B) in order to better identify others
C) as their mental processes change
D) as the situation changes.
能力方面的要求：（四种能力）
1）把握文章主题
2）说明重要细节
3）进行分析推理
4）领会作者的态度
七种题型：
1、态度题
2、是非判断题
3、细节题
4、观点题
5、考文章主题的主题题型
6、推理题
7、词汇题
阅读的做题方法：
1、在题干中找关键词
2、分析原文，同时定位关键词
3、做题时，要回到文章分析相关内容
4、结合排除法选择答案
总结
1、数字
1）数字串考且仅考一个题
2）计算题至少涉及两个数字
2、转折
1）第一段的转折经常和文章主题有关联
2）转折前后对应的单词是反义词，对应的句子是反义句
3）如果句子里面含有however，被考的可能性90％以上
3、举例
如果题干在问一个例子说明什么，则文章中例子本身可以不看
练习1
26. Normally a student would at least attend ________ classes each week.
A) 36 C) 20
B) 12 D) 15
27. According to the first paragraph an American student is allowed ________.
A) to live in a different university
B) to take a particular course in a different university
C) to live at home and drive to classes
D) to get two degrees from two different universities
28. American university students are usually under pressure of work because ________.
A) their academic performance will affect their future careers
B) they are heavily involved in student affairs
C) they have to observe university discipline
D) they want to run for positions of authority
29. Some students are enthusiastic for positions in student organisations probably because ________.
A) they hate the constant pressure and strain of their study
B) they will then be able to stay longer in the university
C) such positions help them get better jobs
D) such positions are usually well paid
30. The student organisations seem to be effective in ________.
A) dealing with the academic affairs of the university
B) ensuring that the students observe university regulations
C) evaluating students' performance by bringing them before a court
D) keeping up the students' enthusiasm for social activities
Passage
Normally a student must attend a certain number of courses in order to graduate, and each course which he attends gives him a credit（学分）which he may count towards a degree. In many American universities the total work for a degree consists of thirty-six courses each lasting for one semester（学期）. A typical course consists of three classes per week for fifteen weeks; while attending a university a student will probably attend four or five courses during each semester. Normally a student would expect to take four years attending two semesters each year. It is possible to spread the period of work for the degree over a longer period. It is also possible for a student to move between one university and another during his degree course, though this is not in fact done as a regular practice
For every course that he follows a student is given a grade, which is recorded, and the record is available for the student to show to prospective employers. All this imposes a constant pressure and strain of work, but in spite of this some students still find time for great activity in student affairs. Elections to positions in student organization arouse much enthusiasm. The effective（30题）work of maintaining discipline is usually performed by students who advise the academic authorities. Any student who is thought to have broken the rules, for example, by cheating has to appear before a student court. With the enormous numbers of students, the operation of the system does involve a certain amount of activity. A student who has held one of these positions of authority is much respected and it will be of benefit（=beneficial）to him later in his career.
26. Normally a student would at least attend ________ classes each week.
A) 36 C) 20
B) 12 D) 15
27. According to the first paragraph an American student is allowed ________.
A) to live in a different university
B) to take a particular course in a different university
C) to live at home and drive to classes
D) to get two degrees from two different universities
28. American university students are usually under pressure of work because ________.
A) their academic performance will affect their future careers
B) they are heavily involved in student affairs
C) they have to observe university discipline
D) they want to run for positions of authority
29. Some students are enthusiastic for positions in student organisations probably because ________.
A) they hate the constant pressure and strain of their study
B) they will then be able to stay longer in the university
C) such positions help them get better jobs这样的职位会帮助他们找到好的工作
D) such positions are usually well paid
30. The student organisations seem to be effective in ________.
A) dealing with the academic affairs of the university
B) ensuring that the students observe university regulations
C) evaluating
D) keeping up the students' enthusiasm for social activities
是非判断题：
1. 四种问法
a) True请问下面哪一个选项是对的
b) Not true请问下面哪一个选项是不对的
c) mentioned请问下面哪一个选项是文章提到的
d) not mentioned请问下面哪一个选项是文章没有提到的
2. 做题方法：在四个选项中，分别找关键词，然后在原文中定位和判断
（通过这篇文章掌握宏观框架——三段式的宏观框架。）
Do you find getting up in the morning so difficult that it's painful? This might be called laziness, but Dr. Kleitman has a new explanation. He has proved that everyone has a daily energy cycle
During the hours when you labour through your work you may say that you're 'hot'. That's true. The time of day when you feel most energetic is when your cycle of body temperature is at its peak. For some people the peak comes during the forenoon. For others it comes in the afternoon or evening. No one has discovered why this is so, but it leads to such familiar monologues（自言自语）as: 'Get up, John! you'll be late for work again!' Much family quarrelling ends when husbands and wives realize what these energy cycles mean, and which cycle each member of the family has.
You can't change your energy cycle, but you can learn to make your life fit it better. Habit can help，Dr. Kleitman believes. Maybe you're sleepy in the evening but feel you must stay up late anyway. Counteract（对抗）your cycle to some extent by habitually staying up later than you want to. If your energy is low in the morning but you have an important job to do early in the day, rise before you usual hour. This won't change your cycle, but you'll get up steam（鼓起干劲）and work better at your low point.
Get off to a slow start，which saves your energy. Get up with a leisurely yawn（呵欠）and stretch. Sit on the edge of the bed a minute before putting your feet on the floor. Avoid the troublesome search for clean clothes by laying them out the night before. Whenever possible, do routine work in the afternoon and save tasks requiring more energy or concentration for your sharper hours.
31. If a person finds getting up early a problem, most probably ________.
A) he is a lazy person
B) he refuses to follow his own energy cycle
C) he is not sure when his energy is low
D) he is at his peak in the afternoon or evening
32. Which of the following may lead to family quarrels according to the passage?
A) Unawareness of energy cycles.
B) Familiar monologues.
C) A change in a family member's energy cycle.
D) Attempts to control the energy cycle of other family members.
33. If one wants to work more efficiently at his low point in the morning, he should ________.
A) change his energy cycle
B) overcome his laziness
C) get up earlier that usual
D) go to bed earlier
34. You are advised to rise with a yawn and stretch because it will ________.
A) help to keep your energy for the day's work
B) help you to control your temper early in the day
C) enable you to concentrate on your routine（日常的）work
D) keep your energy cycle under control all day
35. Which of the following statements is NOT TRUE?
A) Getting off to work with a minimum effort helps save one's energy.
B) Dr. Kleitman explains why people reach their peaks at different hours of day.
C) Habit helps one adapt to his own energy cycle.
D) Children have energy cycles, too.
考文章主题有三大问法：——掌握文章框架
1. 考标题(title) [标题类阅读题的做题方法：总分式的文章结构根据文章的主题句找答案。因为总分式的文章结构，通常在文章的开头有一些总结性的语言。
2. 考文章大意(main idea)
3. 考写作目的(purpose)
方法总结
1、 主题句法
1) 全文首句即为文章主题
A） 全文首句体现作者的肯定意愿
Nursing at Beth Israel Hospital produces the best patient care possible. If we are to solve the nursing shortage（不足）, hospital administration and doctors everywhere would do well to follow Beth Israel's example.
25. The author's attitude towards the nursing system at Beth Israel hospital is ________.
A) negative C) critical
B) neutral D) positive
B） 第一句话被第二句话肯定。
Researchers have established that when people are mentally engaged, biochemical changes occur in the brain that allow it to act more effectively in cognitive（认识的）areas such as attention and memory. This is true regardless of age.
2) 第一段的转折引导文章主题。
When a consumer finds that an item she or he bought is faulty or in some other way does not live up to the manufacturer's claim for it, the first step is to present the warranty（保单）, or any other records which might help, at the store of purchase. In most cases, this action will produce results. However, if it does not, there are various means the consumer may use to gain satisfaction.
3) 文章主题在文章第二段。
A） 第二段的首句为转折或否定，则主题在文章第二段。
For some time past it has been widely accepted that babies—and other creatures—learn to do things because certain acts lead to "rewards"; and there is no reason to doubt that this is true. But it used also to be widely believed that effective rewards, at least in the early stages, had to be directly related to such basic physiological（生理的）"drives" as thirst or hunger. In other words, a baby would learn if he got food or drink or some sort of physical comfort, not otherwise.
It is now clear that this is not so. Babies will learn to behave in ways that produce results in the world with no reward except the successful outcome.
[文章主题句出现一般有3种情况，我们用一句话可以概括：主题看3句。哪三句？第一段的首句，第一段的转折句；第二段的主题句]
2、 求和法（是把各段主题相加求和。适合于并列式的文章结构，解题时，要把各个主题相加求和，特别防止偏的选项。）
3、 利用实验目的找主题（看下面的文章）
【求和法和利用实验目的找主题的方法不是特别重要。重要的方法是第一种方法，主题句法和第四种方法，主题词法。】
4、 主题词法（顾名思义，与文章主题相关的单词。）
1) 题干中多次重复的中心话题
38. The best title for this passage would be ________.
A) Settlements Spread Westward
B) The Coast-to-Coast Railroad: A Vital Link
C) American Railroad History
D) The Importance of Railroads in the American Economy
37. The building of the first transcontinental system ________.
A) brought about a rapid growth of industry and farming in the west
B) attracted many visitors to the construction sites
C) attracted labourers from Europe
D) encouraged people to travel all over the country
39. The construction of the transcontinental railroad took ________.
A) 9 years C) 4 years
B) 7 years D) 3 years
40. What most likely made people think about a transcontinental railroad?
A) The possibility of government support for such a task.
B) The need to explore Utah.
C) The need to connect the east coast with the west.
D) The need to develop the railroad industry in the west.
2) 全文首句的中心话题，在下文各段首末被多次回应。
态度题的总结
1. 态度题答案一般根据文章主题来判断。
2. 阅读态度题经常涉及单词
1) 正评价：positive / optimistic / reasonable / approving
2) 否定：negative / pessimistic / critical / doubted
3) 中立：neutral / compromise / objective
观点题总结
1. 观点题包括问作者观点的题目以及考段落大意的题目
2. 观点题的答案通常会在段落的首末，表示结论性的语言，观点性的语言——观点题的方向所在
3. 与观点题相关的考点，在段落的首句和末句
推理
对于分析和推理，最主要两个词：conclude, infer。——较难的考法
推理的两点总结：
conclude — 1、如果该词在第一题，通常考文章主题。
2、如果该词在中间题，通常考中间段落的主题。
3、如果该词在第五题，通常考文章主题或者最后一段的主题。
infer — 1、如果用该词提问的题目，题干的信息比较多，比较具体，则利用细节题的方法来解。
2、如果题干的信息不多，不具体，则利用文章主题或段落主题找答案。
理科性的文章
我们把文章分为说明文、议论文、记叙文，这种划分方法对我们帮助并不是很大。
对我们有帮助的四级文章分类法：文科的和理科的。凡是一篇文章涉及一个试验怎么操作，涉及到一个试验的过程，那么这就是一篇理科性的文章。凡是不涉及到试验操作的，统统归到文科性的文章。其实，在考试中，理科性的文章规律会非常强。通过下面这篇文章总结理科性文章的特点，应该怎么做，考什么不考什么。也通过这篇文章总结表示目的的语言、表示结论的语言的重要性。
理科性的文章肯定不会考题的地方：实验的过程
理科性的文章肯定会考题的地方：实验的结论
理科性文章的总结
1. 判断的方法。什么叫理科性的文章？原文中有实验。
2. 试验的过程可以快看。
3. 试验的目的即为文章的主题，一般是在实验的过程以前出现的。
21. The purpose of George Spilich's experiments is _______.
A) to test whether smoking has a positive effect on the mental capacity of smokers
B) to show how smoking damages people's mental capacity
C) to prove that smoking affects people's regular performance
D) to find out whether smoking helps people's short-term memory
作文
评分标准：
20-17 内容切题，文字连贯；句式有变化，句子结构和用词正确。文章长度符合要求。——18分为上限，因为要求19分要几乎没有语法错误，没有我也能给你找出来！！！
16-13 内容比较切题，基本连贯；句式有一定变化，句子结构和用词无重大错误。文章长度符合要求。——达到这点就是少数了!!!!
12-9 内容比较切题，基本连贯；句式有一定变化，句子结构和用词有少量错误。文章长度符合要求。——这也不容易，看老师怎么认为了。
8-5 内容基本切题；基本包含两方面的内容，语句可以理解，但有较多的句子结构和用词错误。文章长度基本符合要求。
4-1 我就不打击你了！
一、考生写作的困境及其对策
１、滔滔不绝意识流
中文的特点：情感分段；作者想到哪说的哪，观点由读者领会，听弦外之音，语言含蓄而隐晦
英文的特点：逻辑分段；思维严谨，观点由作者交待，是什么就是什么，比较直接，直来直去
结构：3大块（无论什么题材的文章：提纲式；一个statement）
第一部分：background，介绍整个状况。一定要包含topic sentence。
Topic sentence记下来后，后面要描述，即background，当前是一个什么样的情况，引起了什么样的问题。
第二部分：
第三部分：conclusion
任何文章都会谈what, how, why。要认识本性、本质，就要谈why。比如水源的问题，可持续发展，我们国家现在强调西部的、中部的可持续发展问题。
第一段：为什么现在我们国家提出了可持续发展。
第二段：为什么要可持续发展。(examples, figures, data, fact) 原因列举（a list of reason）/ 举例 / 利和弊
第三段：谈谈你的看法。（如果谈到问题，提出自己的解决方案——how）结尾 / 建议措施 / 预测未来
（可以背一些模板句）
（可能与07年考题话题一样，角度不同。）
实在想不出怎么写，可以参看阅读和英译汉的文章作为题材，或写作框架。
文章长度：200字以上。一定要干净、整洁。
这种结构定义为：学术性英语的功能结构——考的是你的科研能力，
要学会运用英文的思维。
提纲的重要性：
提纲原则，提纲要你干么你就要干么，只写最需要的，注重命题的提纲
还要量化：２００个字，即１２（最好状态）－１５（基础不太好的人）句话。
２、无话可说真难受
社会性的问题，联系生活实际情况，从身边的方方面面中找到话题。
思路扩展
考试中遇到的题目可不完全是这样，有的难，有的简单。怎样确保，无论难易都能在短短的三、五分钟内写出至少三条合适的理由呢？解决方案如下：通常对一个东西的好坏取舍时所用到的理由（十四条）
多数用来表述和事物相关的主题：
(1) 效率； (2) 方便; (3) 经济; (4) 耐久; (5) 安全; (6) 空间
多数用来表述和人相关的主题：
(7) 健康； (8) 乐趣; (9) 成就; (10) 性格; (11) 情感; (12) 经验;(13)他人
下面给出两个作文题目，我们依次来分析一下，看如何应用：
1. typing or pen你是喜欢打字，还是用钢笔去写
选出“打字”的好处：(1) 效率；(2) 方便; (4) 耐久; (5) 交流; (6) 经验；
选出“用钢笔写字”的好处：(1) 效率； (2) 方便; (3) 经济; (7) 空间；(8) 健康; (11) 性格; (12) 情感;
2. 为了钱而工作，还是为兴趣而工作？——难题
选出“为了钱而工作”的理由：这个话题要注意，所给的理由不能太露骨。(1) 效率；(3) 经济; (10) 成就; (14) 他人；
选出“为了兴趣而工作”的理由：这个相对来讲，就比较好说了。(1) 效率；(4) 耐久; (8) 健康; (10) 成就; (11) 性格;
３、真情流露没必要。只需要“相关”，只要大方向相同就可以了，不要想的太远，考作文不是考的人的思想，而是制造一个机会使你展示自己的书面表达英语的能力，应该把内容方面的构思时间降低到最低限度，而花时间在推敲每一个句子，每一个表达上。
４、英语表达憋得慌
达到１２分：安全第一：句子结构，语法 简单原则：词汇，在点缀一些包装性的结构
达到１７分以上：（是有得20分的可能性的），要求词汇多变：多使用同义词、近义词，别重复用词；句子结构多变：一定要有复杂的句子结构
5、处于被动危害大：写作应是主动的，避免不利于自己的词和句，别去说自己说不清楚的东西，不去写自己没有把握的东西，不要把自己搞得很被动。
二、透视2002年到2007年真题, 四种题型
1. Your Opinion类（你的观点）
2003年
In this part, you are expected to write a composition entitled Looking Forward the New Reform of College English in China in no less than 200 words. Your composition should be based on the following outlines:
Outlines:
1) 有些人认为随着各种高水平电子课件的制作和引进，大学生基本上可以自学英语了；
2) 有些人认为大学英语教师虽面临挑战，但不可或缺；
3) 我对中国大学英语教学改革的看法和建议。
Task: It has been more than 30 years since man first landed on the moon. Some people think that space research is a waste of money. Your Opinion.
范文：
For over fifty years, a number of nations have been involved in the exploration of outer space. This research has been very costly, of course. Has this money been well-spent or wasted?
Some people believe that all or most space research should be eliminated because of its incredible expense, not only in terms of money, but also in terms of scientific and human resources. These people point out the fact that it cost billions of dollars to send astronauts to the moon, but all they brought back were some worthless rocks. These people say that the money and effort now being wasted in outer space could be spent on more important projects right here on earth, such as providing housing for homeless people, improving the education system, saving the environment, and finding cures for diseases.
However, other people believe that space research has provided many benefits to mankind. They point out that hundreds of products, from personal computers to heart pace-makers to freeze-dried foods, are the direct or indirect results of space research. They say that weather and communication satellites, which are also products of space programs, have benefited people all over the globe. In addition to these practical benefits, supporters of the space program point to the scientific knowledge that has been acquired about the sun, the moon, the planets and even our own earth as a result of space research.
I agree with people who support space research and want it to continue. Space research, as shown, has already brought many benefits to humanity. Perhaps it will bring even more benefits in the future, ones that we can not even imagine now. Moreover, just as individual people need challenges to make their lives more interesting, I believe the human race itself needs a challenge, and I think that the peaceful exploration of outer space provides just such a challenge.
2. Problems+Reasons+Recommendations类（问题+理由+建议）
2002年
In this part, you are expected to write a composition entitled Pressure of Modern Man in no less than 200 words. Your composition should be based on the following outlines:
Outlines:
1) 现代人会遇到各种各样的压力；
2) 压力的来源；
3) 如何减轻自己的压力。
（实际上是从雅思考试借来的题目：
Many people think that work nowadays is more stressful and less leisurely than in the past. What is your opinion?
Many people think that nowadays people are being subjected to more and more pressure in their work, and thus are having less and less time to relax. What's your opinion?）
2004年
In this part, you are expected to write a composition entitled My View on terrorist Activities in Some Countries in no less than 200 words. Your composition should be based on the following outlines:
Outlines:
1) 恐怖活动日益猖獗的表现；
2) 分析其猖獗的原因；
3) 各国应采取的有效措施；
4) 你对我国所采取措施的态度或看法。
2005年
In this part, you are expected to write a composition entitled If I Were the Mayor of This City in no less than 200 words. Your composition should be based on the following outlines:
Outlines:
1) 这个城市现在存在的主要问题；
2) 假如我是的话，如何解决这些问题；
3) 问题解决后的城市前景。
分析：It is generally acknowledged that families are now not as close as they used to be. Give possible reasons and your recommendations.
范文：
There is much discussion nowadays as to whether or not the relationship between family members as close as before. Diversely factors can be identified. In the following, I would like to present my point of view.
Great changes have taken place in family life along with the development of society. One of them is that the once-extended family tends to become smaller and smaller. Many children have to leave their parents at an early age to study or world elsewhere. As time passes, children become emotionally estranged from their parents.
Compared with the past, social competition is becoming increasingly fierce. People are urged to concentrate their efforts upon work, so that they can achieve success, or at least a good standard of living. As a result, they can’t afford to spend their leisure hours with their families. The importance of bonds of kinship is gradually fading from their minds.
In addition, the availability of various kinds of recreational facilities also diverts people from enjoying chats with members of their families. Their free time is mostly occupied by watching TV, surfing the Internet or playing video games. They come to lose interest in communicating with the other members of their families.
In view of such alienation with families, I do believe that urgent steps must be taken. For members of families who live away from one another, regular contact on the phone can bring them the care that they need. Family reunions on holidays or other important occasions can make a difference as well. For those living together, it is a good idea to take some time off work or recreation periods to spend more time with each other. In the final analysis, a close family relationship can surely be maintained as long as we realize the significant role it plays in our lives and attach importance to it.
3. Agree or Disagree类（同意与否）
2007年
Directions: The age of Information Technology has taken a lot of people by surprise. While it has become a way of life for some, others know very little about it and may be unlikely to learn. Eventually we will have a polarized society and this will lead to serious social problems.
To what degree do you agree or disagree with this statement?
Task: At present it is hard for college graduates to find jobs. Many people claim that college teachers should give priority to practical courses like computer science and business over such traditional ones as history and geography. What do you think?
范文：
A criticism often heard these days is that the subjects taught in schools tend to be too academic, and contribute little to preparing a young person for the real-life tasks he or she will have to perform after graduation. They say that academic subjects are rooted in the past, and are not useful for solving modern problems. I disagree with this point of view for three reasons.
My first reason is that it is the duty of parents, not teachers, to prepare their children to deal with the practical affairs of life. The home, not the classroom, is the ideal place to learn about home management and interpersonal skills. As for work abilities and attitudes, they are best learned “on the job" and under the supervision of an experienced older worker.
My second reason is that academic subjects have withstood the test of time. They represent the accumulated wisdom of our ancestors down through the ages, and, far from being impractical, they equip us with the knowledge and confidence to make sound judgments about any problems which may crop up. In addition, academic subjects are good for training us in mental discipline, while practical subjects are weak in this regard.
My third reason is based on the saying “Man does not live by bread alone." Schooldays devoted solely to instruction in down-to-earth practical matters would be dull indeed! Lessons in the best literature of the world, and the epoch-making scientific and geographical discoveries of the past enrich our lives and make us feel that we are part of the great family of mankind.
All in all, the teaching of academic subjects in schools is entirely appropriate. It is my firmly held view that practical subjects have no place in the classroom. On the contrary, the curriculum should be more academic!
4. Advantages and Disadvantages类（优点和缺点）
2006年
Now many people enjoy e-mail and other people prefer face-to-face conversation. Which is Better: Talk or E-mail?
写作策略：
首段：设置场景，交待写作意图。
主体段：分两部分写，一部分写advantages(优点)，另一部分写disadvantages(缺点)。
结尾段：走向折衷的结论。
Task: With the increasing popularity of computers and calculators, student literacy is decreasing dramatically. What are the positive and negative effects the progress of science and technology has brought about?
范文：
It has been widely noted that, with the growing use of computers and calculators both in the classroom and in the home, the level of literacy and mathematical ability of students is dropping. This raises serious doubts about the value of the progress of science and technology. Here I will discuss the pros and cons of this question. First of all, advances in science and technology have certainly brought about many benefits for mankind. They have made our lives more comfortable and healthier. In addition, they have eased the burden of work for most people and provided them with more leisure opportunities, while at the same time increasing productivity dramatically.
Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that technology has some negative side-effects. As mentioned above, with computers which check spelling, grammar and calculation for them, students have little incentive to learn how to do these things for themselves. Also, the availability of TV programs and videos encourages an unhealthy, sedentary lifestyle.
Another aspect of this issue is that technology may be good or bad, depending on how we use it. For instance, dynamite may be used to make road construction easier, or it may be used to kill people. Again, nuclear reactors can supply huge amounts of cheap electricity, but if they are carelessly handled they can cause devastating pollution.
We can conclude that the progress of science and technology has both positive and negative effects. What we must do is to make sure that the positive ones are encouraged and the negative ones are eliminated as far as possible. Among other things, this means that students are warned not to let computers and calculators do all their work for them.
三．写作语言
具体一下：词汇第一位，语法第二位。
词汇：
１、词汇的宽度；即词汇的面，多变化，一定不能出现重复的词。
２、词汇的难度。
基础差的同学得分：词汇的难度可能作不到，但词汇的宽度可以贯彻写作意识。
第一档：没有词汇概念
第二档：有意识的换掉重复的词
第三档：挑战词汇的难度
句子结构：（语法）
１、 句子结构的精确性；
２、句子结构的复杂性
a. 句型的开端多变化（种种方式）
b 包含从句（状语从句，定语从句，同位语从句，非谓语动词等）
第一档：没有语法概念，低级错误一大堆
第二档：句子结构没有什么错误，但多为简单句
第三档：努力做复杂句子结构，学会用句型去包装
要改变语言缺乏这一毛病，就要平时积累对同一意思的不同表达法，在写作时善于变化。这部分的任何一个句子都没有任何的错误，但是第2句都是更加优秀的句子，但b句的表达比a句更优秀。这就是实质性的涨分数
例2
如要表示“使”不要仅靠make;
社会拒绝给妇女以平等的权利。
a)This society still makes women unable to enjoy equal rights.
b)Women are still denied（否认，拒绝给某人）equal rights.
这件小事情使我想起了过去的一段经历。
a)The incident made me recall one of my past experiences.
b)The incident remained me of one of my past experiences.
如要表达“越来越”，不要只使用more and more：
a)More and more students find learning English has become more and more difficult.
b)Students in growing numbers find learning has become increasingly difficult.
c) Heart transplanting surgeries are becoming increasingly commonplace.
a)More and more teenagers smoke cigarettes in recent years.
b)Teenage smoking is on the rise in recent years.
a)More and more teachers are demanded with the development of economy.
b)There is an increasing demand for teachers with the development of economy.
如要表达“大多数”。不要一味用most：
a)Most student take a part-time job after class.
b)The vast majority of students take a part-time job after class.
a)Most people take part in sports of different kinds.
b)The considerable proportion of people take part in sports of different kinds.
a)Most college students take a negative attitude towards smoking.
b)The large percentage of college population take a negative attitude towards smoking.
如要用“不仅……而且……”不要只用not only...but also：
a)The factors for a rise in teenage smoking is not only social but also psychological. （什么方面在增长的因素）
b)The factors for a rise in teenage smoking is psychological as well as social.
a)Old people go to park not only to do exercise but also to make friends.
b)Old people go to park as much for companionship as for exercise.
例7
有人说，写作不是要简练吗？但表达要简练绝不是简单。以下a）句显得不很简练，b）就是真正的简练，但有不流于简单
a) The progress I have made makes me surprised.
b) The progress I have made surprises me.(简练)
a) This makes me conclude that money doesn’t mean everything.
b) This leads me to the conclusion that money doesn’t mean everything.
翻译“金钱不是万能的”时，你可能不知道“万能的”这个单词是omnipotent。当发现追求一一对应，而找不到对应词时，说出意思就可以了。
２、不要总是以有生命的名词和人称代词开头
a) Many people think birth control is quite necessary in China.
b) It is widely (commonly) thought / believed / held / accepted) that birth control is quite necessary in China.
a) More and more people agree (realize / are aware) that women should enjoy full equality with men.
b) There is a growing agreement (realization / awareness) that women should enjoy full equality with men.
a) Many Chinese people have gone to the U.S. in the past 15 years.
b) The past 15 years have brought many Chinese people to the U.S..
(9月11号witnessed the collapse … / 1949 saw the founding of …见证了…)
a) Students should certainly make continuous efforts.
b) Continuous efforts on the part of students are certainly required.
on the part of =of
a) We easily drew the conclusion through the investigation.
b) The investigation easily led us to the conclusion.
３、不要千篇一律的使用主动态
a) We may think more of the elderly who live apart from their children.
b) More thoughts may be given to the elderly who live apart from their children.
４、不要总是用if\\because\hen这样的句子，口语味道太浓, 要注意使用书面英语。
例12
a) If you compare bicycles with cars carefully, you will find bicycles are superior to cars.
b) Careful comparison of bicycles with cars will show the superiority of the former over the latter.（作为单词来记）（在现实生活中，我们常说“A与B比较，A要好一些”。既然你是经常说的，你在英语中也会经常说。所以，就有了公式：Careful comparison of A with B will show the superiority of the former over the latter.）
a) If we only apply book knowledge, we will not get good results.
b) The application of book knowledge alone won’t bring you good results.
a) If we can better understand the greater pressure of population growth, we will have a correct attitude towards family planning.
b) A better understanding of the greater pressure of population growth is essential to a correct attitude towards family planning.（套话）
５、不要对动词过分依赖，要学会用名词结构来表达意思。
例13
a) The style of living has become more and more (=increasingly) popular and accepted by more and more (=growing) young people.
b) The style of living has found its growing popularity and acceptance among young people.
a) If we are watching too much TV, our reading ability will be seriously affected.
b) Heavy exposure to TV will exert an negative effect on out reading ability.
a) If we don’t recognize the serious problem of growing population, we will make a big mistake.
b) Failure to recognize the seriousness of growing population will lead to a big mistake.
６、不要总是用肯定句来表达，要学会用否定句来表达肯定的意思。即双重否定＝肯定
例14
a) Every young boy and girl wants to earn a little money to help cover higher college cost.
b) There is hardly a young boy or girl who doesn’t want to earn a little money to help cover higher college cost.
a) Whenever you pick up a newspaper, you will always find advertisements.
b) It is impossible to pick up a newspaper without finding advertisements.
a) Gathering around and listening to mother or father read a good story is the best pastimes to bring a family closer together.
b) Few pastimes bring a family closer together than gathering around and listening to mother or father to read a good story.
写作步骤（时间的分配）
1. 写作的准备（2-3分钟）
(1) 分析问题
(2) 找到写作的角度
(3) 列出主要观点
2. 开始写作（25分钟）
3. 检查错误（2-3分钟）——关键
常见语言错误：
1 使用了正确的语法结构，比方说，动词时态一致、主谓一致、用词准确(尤其是名词、动词、形容词)、冠词错误和介词错误。
2 使用了一定的词汇量。
3 拼写没有错误。
5 使用了过渡性词语，因而句子之间和段落之间都具有逻辑性和条理性。
修改时，如果时间紧，就先修改第一个段落和每个段落的第一句下载本文
