The present unit will now discuss models or taxonomies that have been proposed for examing the small changes or ‘shifts’ that occur between units in a ST-TT pair. A connecting theme of the examples is rail travel, perhaps a symbolic counterpoint to the best known taxonomy of translation shifts, devised by Vinay and Darbelnet and initially inspired by the study of bilingual road signs in Canada.
TRANSLATION SHIFTS
On some international trains, there is, or used to be, a multilingual warning notice displayed next to the windows:
Example A4.1
请勿将身体探出窗外。
Do not lean out of window.
The warning is clear, even if the form is different in each language. The English, the only one to actually mention the window, is a negative imperative, while the French use a negative infinitive construction (‘not to lean outside’). Of course, these kinds of differences are typical of translation in general. It is not at all the most common for the exact structure of the words to be repeated across languages and, even when the grammatical structure is the same (as the French examples above)), the number of word forms varies from nine to six.
The small linguistic changes that occur between ST and TT are known as translation shifts. John Catford was the first scholar to use the term in his A Linguistic Theory of Translation (1965, see Section B). His definition of shifts is ‘departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL’. (Catford 1965:73). The distinction drawn between formal correspondence and textual equivalence will be crucial and relates to Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole.
Language has two facets, one to do with the linguistic system ( a fairly stable langue), the other with all that which a speaker might say or understand while using language ( a varialble parole). Noam Chomsky was probably right in categorically excluding activities such as translation from the purview of his own research into syntactic sturcures. And so-called ‘linguistics-oriented’ translation theory has not interacted well with translation practice simply because it has systematically sought neatness of categories at the expense of being true to what people say or do with language, which is what gets translated ultimately. In parole-oriented translation theory and practice, we are concerned not so much with the systemic similarities and differences between languages with the communicative process in all its aspects, with conventions (both linguistic and rhetorical) and with translation as mediation between different languages and cultures.
Concept Box Langue, parole
Concept Box Formal correspondence
A formal correspondence is defined by Catford as ‘any TL category (unit, class, structure, element of structure, etc.) which can be said to occupy, as nearly as possible, the ‘same’ place in the ‘economy’ of the TL as the given SL category occupies in the SL’ (Catford 1965:27). In simplified terms, this means a TL piece of language which plays the same role in the TL system as an SL piece of language plays in the SL system. Thus, a noun such as 窗户 might be said generally to occupy a similar place in the Chinese language system as the noun window does in English. Formal correspondence therefore involves a comparison and description of the language systems (Saussure’s langue) but not a comparison of specific ST-TT pairs (textual equivalence).
Concept Box Textual equivalence
A textual equivalence is defined as ‘any TL text or portion of text which is observed […] to be the equivalent of a given SL text or portion of text’ (Catford 1965:27). Whereas formal correspondence has to do with the general, non-specific, relationship between elements in two languages, textual equivalent focuses on the relations that exist between elements in a specific ST-TT pair (Sassure’s parole ). In Example 4.1, the English textual equivalent for out of window is 探出窗外; the formal correspondent equivalent outside is not used.
Concept Box Translation shift
A shift is said to occur if, in a given TT, a translation equivalent other than the formal correspondent occurs for a special SL element. This is what has occurred between the French and English texts in Example A4.1.
The following example, from a leaflet distributed on board Eurostar trains explaining the measures being taken to detect smoking, can illustrate these differences.
Example A4.2
Please note that smoke detectors will be fitted on-board.
Task A4.2
Look at these two examples. How many departures from formal correspondence can you detect? How do you decide what a departure is?
Catford was the first to use the term shifit, but the most comprehensive taxonomy of translation shifts, based on their ‘translation procedures’, was set out by the Canadians Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet in their A Comparative stylistics of French and English (1958/1995). While it is true that they approach the subject from the point of view of comparative or contrastive stylistics, using parallel non-translated as well as translated texts, they describe a detailed and systematic model for the analysis and comparison of a ST-TT pair. The first step involves identification and numbering of the ST units and the units of translation. This is followed by a matching of the two.
Identifying that a shift has taken place leads to questions such as what kind of shift, what form of classification we can use and what the importance of the shifts is. As will begin to become clear, Vinay and Darbelnet’s categorization of translation procedures is very detailed. They name two ‘methods’ covering seven procedures:
1.direct translation, which covers
borrowing, calque and literal translation, and
2.oblique translation, which is transposition, modulation, equivalence and adaptation.
These procedures are applied on three levels of language:
i.the lexicon
ii.the grammatical structures and
iii.the ‘message’, which is used to refer to the situational utterance and some of the higher text elements such as sentences and paragraphs.
At the level of message, Vinay and Darbelnet discuss such strategies compensation, an important term in translation which is linked to the notion of loss and gain.
A translation technique used to compensate for translation loss. The translator offsets an inevitable loss at one point in the text by adding a suitable element at another point, achieving a compensatory translation gain. For example, an informal text in French using the second personal pronoun tu might be rendered in English by informal lexis or use of the first name or nickname. Compensation in an interpretive sense, restoring life to the TT, is the fourth ‘movement’ of Steiner’s hermeneutic process.
Concept Box Compensation, loss and gain
These translation procedures have influenced later taxonomies by, amonst others van Leuven-Zwart (19,1990), who attempts a very complex analysis of extracts from translations of Latin American fiction. However, despite a systematic means of analysis based on the denotative meaning of each word, the decision as to whether a shift has occurred is inevitably subjective since an evaluation of the equivalence of the ST and TT units is required. Some kind of evaluator is necessary.
A non-linguistic, intermediate form of the meaning of a`ST and TT. The idea is that an invariant meaning exists, independent of both texts, which can be used to gauge or assist transfer of meaning between ST and TT. (to be continued next page)
Concept Box Tertium comparationis
This can be described graphically as follows:
ST chunk TT chunk
comparator
This has long been z thorny issue in Translation Studies and no one measure has ever been accepted by all.
Task 4.3
What means of comparison did you use when assessing shifts in Task 4.2 above? How objective do you feel this comparison was?
Attempts at objectifying the comparison have included van Leuven- Zwart’s Architranseme concept where the dictionary meaning of the ST term was taken as a comparator and used independently to evaluate the closeness of the ST and TT term ( van Leuven-Zwart 19,1990). However, the success of the Architranseme rests upon the absolute objective dependability of the whether a shift has occurred in the translation context. In view of the difficulty, not to say impossibility, of achieving this, many theories have moved away from the tertium comparationis (See Snell-Hornby 1990). Gideon Toury is the Israeli scholar who has been the prime proponent of Descriptive Translation Studies, a branch of the discipline that sets out to describe translate on by comparing and analyzing ST-TT pairs. In his work, Toury initially used a supposed ‘invariant’ as a form of comparison (Toury 1995) , but in his major work Descriptive Translation Studies – and Beyond ( Toury 1995) he drops this in favour of more flexible ‘ad–hoc’ approach to the selection of features, dependent on the characteristics of the specific texts under consideration. Importantly, he warns against ‘the totally negative kind of reasoning required by the search for shifts’ (Toury 1995: 84) in which error and failure and loss in translation are highlighted. Instead, for Toury translation shift analysis is most valuable as a form of ‘discovery’, ‘a step towards the formulation of explanatory hypotheses’ about the practice of translation (1995:85).
This unit describes a theoretical position that promotes the systematic analysis of the changes that take place in moving from ST to TT. A change, known technically as a ‘shift’, is generally any translation that moves away from formal correspondence. Analysis normally forst requires identification of the translation unit. The best-known work in this area is by Catford, who first used the term shift, and by Vinay and Darbelnet, whose detailed taxonomy has influenced many theorists. 下载本文